Human Development Index Free Essays

Presentation: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite measurement used to rank nations by level of â€Å"human development† and separate â€Å"very high human development†, â€Å"high human development†, â€Å"medium human development†, and â€Å"low human development† nations. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a near proportion of future, proficiency, training and ways of life for nations around the world. It is a standard methods for estimating prosperity, particularly youngster government assistance. We will compose a custom exposition test on Human Development Index or then again any comparative subject just for you Request Now It is utilized to recognize whether the nation is a created, a creating or an immature nation, and furthermore to quantify the effect of financial approaches on personal satisfaction. There are likewise HDI for states, urban communities, towns, and so on by neighborhood associations or organizations. Foundation: The inceptions of the HDI are found in the yearly Human Development Reports of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). These were contrived and propelled by Pakistani financial specialist Mahbub ul Haq in 1990 and had the unequivocal reason ‘‘to move the focal point of improvement financial aspects from national pay bookkeeping to individuals focused policies’’. To deliver the Human Development Reports, Mahbub ul Haq united a gathering of notable advancement business analysts including: Paul Streeten, Frances Stewart, Gustav Ranis, Keith Griffin, Sudhir Anand and Meghnad Desai. In any case, it was Nobel laureate Amartya Sen’s chip away at abilities and functionings that gave the hidden reasonable system. Haq was certain that a straightforward composite proportion of human advancement was required so as to persuade the general population, scholastics, and strategy creators that they can and ought to assess improvement by monetary advances as well as enhancements in human prosperity. Sen at first contradicted this thought, however he proceeded to help Haq build up the Human Development Index (HDI). Sen was concerned that it was hard to catch the full multifaceted nature of human abilities in a solitary file yet Haq convinced him that lone a solitary number would move the consideration of strategy creators from fixation on monetary to human prosperity. Information assortment: Life hope during childbirth is given by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs; mean long periods of tutoring by Barro and Lee (2010); expected long periods of tutoring by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics; and GNI per capita by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. For scarcely any nations, mean long periods of tutoring are evaluated from broadly delegate family unit overviews. Numerous information holes despite everything exist in even some extremely essential territories of human advancement markers. While effectively upholding for the improvement of human advancement information, as a rule and for down to earth reasons, the Human Development Report Office doesn't gather information legitimately from nations or make appraisals to fill these information holes in the Report. Measurements and estimation: Published on 4 November 2010, beginning with the 2010 Human Development Report the HDI joins three measurements: 1. A long and sound life: Life hope during childbirth 2. Access to information: Mean long periods of tutoring and Expected long stretches of tutoring 3. A tolerable way of life: GNI per capita (PPP US$) The HDI consolidated three measurements up until its 2010 report: 1. Future during childbirth, as a record of populace wellbeing and life span 2. Information and instruction, as estimated by the grown-up education rate (with 66% weighting) and the joined essential, auxiliary, and tertiary gross enlistment proportion (with 33% weighting). 3. Way of life, as demonstrated by the normal logarithm of total national output per capita at buying power equality. New technique for 2010 information onwards: In its 2010 Human Development Report the UNDP started utilizing another technique for ascertaining the HDI. The accompanying three lists are utilized: LE ¬-20 1. Future Index (LEI) = 63. 2 vMYSI . EYSI 2. Training Index (EI) = 0. 951 ln (GNIpc) †ln (163) 3. Pay Index (II) = ln(108,211) †ln (163) Finally, the HDI is the geometric mean of the past three standardized files: HDI = v LEI . EI . II 2010 report: The 2010 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Program was discharged on November 4, 2010, and ascertains HDI values dependent on gauges for 2010. Reactions: The Human Development Index has been censured on various grounds, including inability to incorporate any environmental contemplations, concentrating solely on national execution and positioning (albeit numerous national Human Development Reports, taking a gander at subnational execution, have been distributed by UNDP and othersâ€so this last case is false), not giving a lot of consideration to improvement from a worldwide viewpoint and dependent on grounds of estimation blunder of the hidden measurements and recipe changes by the UNDP which can prompt serious misclassifications of nations in the classifications of being a ‘low’, ‘medium’, ‘high’ or ‘very high’ human evelopment nation. Different creators guaranteed that the Human Development Reports â€Å"have put some distance between their unique vision and the file neglects to catch the substance of the world it tries to portray†. The list has additionally been censured as â€Å"redundant† and a â€Å"reinvention of the wheel†, estimating parts of advancement that have just been thoroughly contemplated. The record has additionally been condemned for having a wrong treatment of pay, lacking year-to-year similarity, and evaluating advancement diversely in various gatherings of nations. Financial analyst Bryan Caplan has scrutinized the way HDI scores are created; every one of the three parts are limited somewhere in the range of zero and one. Because of that, rich nations viably can't improve their rating (and consequently their positioning comparative with different nations) in specific classifications, despite the fact that there is a great deal of extension for monetary development and life span left. â€Å"This viably implies that a nation of immortals with vast per-capita GDP would get a score of . 66 (lower than South Africa and Tajikistan) if its populace were ignorant and never went to class. † He contends, â€Å"Scandinavia proves to be the best as indicated by the HDI on the grounds that the HDI is essentially a proportion of how Scandinavian your nation is. † Economists Hendrik Wolff, Howard Chong and Maximilian Auffhammer talk about the HDI from the point of view of information mistake in the fundamental wellbeing, instruction and salary m easurements used to build the HDI. 18] They distinguish three wellsprings of information mistake which are because of (I) information refreshing, (ii) recipe modifications and (iii) edges to group a country’s improvement status and locate that 11%, 21% and 34% of all nations can be deciphered as at present misclassified in the advancement receptacles because of the three wellsprings of information blunder, separately. The creators propose that the United Nations should stop the act of arranging nations into advancement receptacles in light of the fact that the cut-off qualities appear to be self-assertive, can give motivations to vital conduct in revealing authority insights, and can possibly deceive government officials, financial specialists, noble cause donators and the general population everywhere which utilize the HDI. In 2010 the UNDP responded to the analysis and refreshed the limits to order countries as low, medium and high human advancement nations. In a remark to The Economist toward the beginning of January 2011, the Human Development Report Office responded[24] to a January 6, 2011 article in The Economist which examines the Wolff et al. paper. The Human Development Report Office expresses that they embraced an orderly correction of the strategies utilized for the estimation of the HDI and that the new technique legitimately addresses the investigate by Wolff et al. in that it produces a framework for consistent refreshing of the human advancement classifications at whatever point equation or information amendments occur. Coming up next are normal reactions aimed at the HDI: that it is an excess measure that adds little to the estimation of the individual estimates creating it; that it is a way to give authenticity to self-assertive weightings of a couple of parts of social turn of events; that it is a number delivering a relative positioning which is pointless for between worldly correlations, and hard to look at a country’s progress or relapse since the HDI for a nation in a given year relies upon the degrees of, state, future or GDP per capita of different nations in that year. Be that as it may, every year, UN part states are recorded and positioned by the figured HDI. Assuming high, the position in the rundown can be effectively utilized as a methods for national magnification; then again, assuming low, it very well may be utilized to feature national inadequacies. Utilizing the HDI as a flat out list of social government assistance, a few creators have utilized board HDI information to gauge the effect of financial arrangements on personal satisfaction. Ratan Lal Basu scrutinizes the HDI idea from a totally unique edge. As per him the Amartya Sen-Mahbub ul Haq idea of HDI thinks about that arrangement of material luxuries alone would realize Human Development, however Basu opines that Human Development in the genuine sense should grasp both material and good turn of events. As per him human advancement dependent on HDI alone, is like dairy ranch financial matters to improve dairy ranch yield. To cite: ‘So human improvement exertion ought not wind up in enhancement of material hardships alone: it must embrace to achieve otherworldly and moral advancement to help the biped to turn out to be really human. [31] For instance, a high self destruction rate would cut the file down. A couple of creators have proposed elective files to address a portion of the index’s weaknesses. Be that as it may, of those proposed options in contrast to the HDI, few have produc

Recently, Microsoft Started Having Legal Problems. It Was One Legal Ba

As of late, Microsoft began having legitimate issues. It was one fight in court after another. It was removing an excessive amount of time from what Microsoft specializes in. By and by, I think it was beginning to get the chance to be strange. The issues originally began not long after Microsoft discharged the Windows 98 Operating System. To help the appearance of Windows 98, Microsoft Internet Explorer was incorporated with the working framework to turn into a significant segment to Windows 98. Along these lines, the default Internet program was Internet Explorer. A few clients didn't care for this. Netscape Communications Corporation (otherwise called Netscape), made a major whine about this issue. They asserted that Windows 98 clients were being compelled to utilize Internet Explorer, and it detracted from the clients that need to utilize Netscape. After months in court, Microsoft and Netscape at long last went to a settlement. The following issue that Microsoft had, is they were being charged by the United States government, of having a syndication on the PC showcase. This was on the grounds that all new PCs had the Microsoft Windows Operating System on it. This was hard for clients that needed to have the option to change the Operating System to their own loving. They were being compelled to purchase Microsoft-related items regardless of whether they would not like to. This was valid as long as they didn't need a Macintosh PC. This issue was started by the case among Microsoft and Netscape. The legislature charged Microsoft of illicitly packaging Microsoft Internet Explorer and Windows 98 together. The difficult at that point proceeded with further in court. In January 2000, Bill Gates chose to step down as the President and CEO of Microsoft, and give those situations to Steve Ballmer, who is a long colleague of Bill Gates. Bill Gates, at that point makes another situation for himself, this new job is Chairman and Chief Software Architect. This choice was made by Bill, with the goal that he can commit the entirety of his opportunity to helping drive the cutting edge Windows Internet stage and administrations. In the mean time, back in court, the fight proceeds with the legislature. The administration controlled Microsoft of illicitly packaging the product and was requested to separate into two organizations. Microsoft has been engaging this since it was dominated. Microsoft is emphatically making an effort not to be separated, due the results that they dread may occur on the off chance that they are separated. They are attempting to remain one in number organization, and their advantage is in the purchaser and in everything that Microsoft can do to enable the PC to age. All in all, today, this issue is as yet going on in court. As I would see it, I imagine that the administration should disregard Microsoft, in light of the fact that they are taking this procedure excessively far. I need Microsoft to be left with no guarantees, one organization. It could spell catastrophe for PC innovation in the event that they are separated into two organizations. We simply need to hold up somewhat longer to perceive what the legislature will do about this.

Artificial Intelligence in the Near Future Essay Example for Free

Man-made reasoning in the Near Future Essay Have you at any point considered what it resembles to have a lot of robots thoroughly take care of you? Cook, clean, get things done, possibly deal with the kids and creatures. That seems like a quite simple life. What might you do however in the event that they all turned on you; unexpectedly your simple life was made more troublesome than previously. There are different sides to Artificial Intelligence, much like there are different sides to each individual. There is a great deal to take in when discussing Artificial Intelligence, for example, what it implies, how it began, favorable circumstances, inconveniences, things that utilization man-made consciousness, how do others feel about it, what is your opinion about it, and numerous different inquiries. So what is Artificial Intelligence? Man-made brainpower is viewed as the improvement of machines, for example, robots and security frameworks that carry out the responsibilities of people. They are likewise ready to comprehend human discourse. With this being said later on robots will have the option to do everything people can, if worse. Things that utilization Artificial Intelligence will be customized to reaction to voices, either any voice that address it, or just certain ones. Frameworks that can just open to a specific voice are in all likelihood going to be utilized for government work, while ones that open to any can be utilized for ordinary things. In 1963 Konrad Zuse created the Z1 PC. This PC was the primary PC that was uninhibitedly programmable. 1942 John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry Created the ABC Computer, after twenty years Steve Russell and MIT develop the Spacewar PC game, which was the main PC game on record. By 1973 Robert Metcalfe and Xerox had the option to think of PC organizing. Eleven years after that in 1984 Apple developed the Macintosh Computer, which was the first moderate work station to be in quite a while. In 1949, between the ABC Computer and the principal PC organizing progression in PC hypothesis lead to software engineering, and in the long run Artificial Intelligence. In the wake of systems administration came about AI (Artificial Intelligence) got conceivable. Norbert Wiener was the main American to mention the objective fact between human knowledge and machine, this occurred in 1950. Despite the fact that Norbert made the association John McCarthy was think about the dad of AI, since he set up numerous meetings to get AI up and working. This took seven years. At last the Thermostat was consider the principal AI since it could control the temperature in the room, it had the option to see if the room was to hot or excessively cold, and change it just as you would prefer. At that point in 1955 The Logic Theorist was created by Newell and Simon, and consider to be the principal AI PC program. BY 1960 it was anticipated that by 1985 AI would carry out the responsibility of people (Kurweil 69) Quick sending to the current AI has soar. There are vacuums that you should simply press the force catch and it does everything all alone there is no requirement for you to do any of the work. GPS are likewise an incredible creation, put one in your vehicle, or type on your telephone and it can disclose to you how to get where you should be, just as find shorter courses, non cost streets, just as staying away from mishaps or back up traffic, you can even place in the event that you are strolling or riding a bicycle. PDAs have made lives simpler too. There is so much you can do with them, from checking financial balance to placing in updates, and a few things are even voice initiated. ATT Bell Laboratories might be the absolute most dynamic broadcast communications body working in Artificial Intelligence. Presently on the off chance that you need to have a ton of fun with an AI, Cleverbot is the best approach. Cleverbot is a PC framework that you can converse with, it’s doesnâ €™t consistently have the most pleasant comments, or even bode well however it is amusing to mess with. The latest thing to grow up is a vehicle that drives itself, and can differentiate between individuals who are strolling and those on bicycles. In 2004 the Company named Topix was established by Sun Microsystems and Netscape engineers Tom Markson, Bryan Dole, and Bob Truel. This organization made computerized reasoning calculations to screen news from in excess of 50,000 sources. They later included client produced abilities permitting site guests to share, alter, and talk about news. Having a thing that is an AI has its points of interest. First of all it would make for more secure work places. Some work places have employments with low oxygen, radioactive components or even poor climate conditions, on the off chance that we have robot working in those condition rather than human, numerous lives could be spared. Indeed, even occupations that keep families separated would be at an unequaled low. NASA and the Military would likewise have increasingly advance weapons. They would have the option to see and obliterate different nations hurtful weapons and keep us more secure. Additionally on the off chance that we had robots and different kinds of machines that don't have to rest or eat, they could work nonstop on finding a remedy for malignant growth, and completion world appetite. Rather than sending our men and lady to remote nations were they are shelled and taken shots at, we could send AI machines. Above all there would be less blunder in the work place. Numerou s spots as of now use machine to improve measure out the perfect measure of gear. There is a drawback to utilizing AI also. With the ascent of robots assuming control over occupations it implies individuals will be supplanted. The joblessness rate will go up, less individuals will get the assist they with requiring in light of the fact that an excessive number of individuals will require collaborators, and lethargy in people will arrive at an untouched high. Without going anyplace or do whatever will leave individuals to sit and sit in front of the TV throughout the day. With occupations being removed, more youthful ages will be off guard since they won't realize what it resembles to â€Å"earn a buck†. As AI develops they will gather a wide range of data, an excessive amount of information for one being is anything but something worth being thankful for, they may wind up intuition they are more brilliant than us, and go haywire messing more up. Also if an inappropriate people get their hands on it they could abuse it. A large portion of all however it will be expensive. Which means the individuals will have higher assessments to pay, and with robots accomplishing all the work with cash we just don’t have. With regards to man-made consciousness my considerations on it are 50/50. While I figure it is incredible to have additional assistance in work places or around the home, just as not putting such a significant number of individuals in peril just to complete a vocation I myself would not have any desire to lose my employment. I feel that on the off chance that we utilize computerized reasoning to benefit others and not simply to make things simpler then we ought to do fine, however we should be cautious that it doesn't fall into an inappropriate hands. Subsequent to taking an overview of ten men and ten lady running from the ages twenty to forty, inquiring as to whether they figure computerized reasoning would be a decent use for the future, the outcome were as followed: five said truly, five said no, 3 were uncertain, and seven figure it would be both acceptable and terrible. In the twenty age bunch most were uncertain however the individuals who picked both were not far behind, yes and no’s were equivalent. In the age gathering of thirty there were no yes’s or uncertain, the individuals who picked no were destroyed by the individuals who picked both. In the forty age rang there were no uncertain, the individuals who picked both and no’s were equivalent as the yes’s beat them out. So it would appear the more youthful you are the more you don't know, and the more seasoned you are the more you might want it to occur. I asked the individuals that I overviewed for what good reason they picked the appropriate response they did. For the individuals who said No, a large portion of them said it was on the grounds that they wouldn’t need to lose their employment, while other stress over the framework outmaneuvering us and causing a great deal of harm and issues, beat they have no ethical judgment, sympathy or other human feelings. The individuals who said yes were anticipating work being simpler, dynamic would be simpler and not put as much focus on the individual in control. One of the individuals who said yes had this to state â€Å"Yes they could safeguard a kid from a consuming structure without getting hurt†¦83 Firefighters kicked the bucket a year ago while endeavoring to stop fires. That number would be zero on the off chance that we had AI in the feeling of I, Robot. That is only one model however the suggestions are endless. Okay rather have a robot that never exhausts or gets dive rted do medical procedure on your cerebrum or a specialist that may have had a late night or may have a troublesome individual issue at the forefront of his thoughts, similar to a separation? (J.s).Those who pick both idea that it ought to be permitted, however with limits. Everybody has questions with regards to AI. The one that is by all accounts stressed over the most however is â€Å"will laws change, or will there be various laws for AI? Individuals are concerned that they should become familiar with another arrangement of laws. On the off chance that by chance there are various laws for AI creatures will they be similarly as reasonable as our own? Or then again will they have more benefits? There is such a great amount of data out there with regards to AI that it tends to be difficult to stay aware of. Since you recognize what AI is, the manner by which it began, things that utilization it, favorable circumstances and weaknesses, my contemplations, different people groups musings and inquiries that are posed to you have a decent head start on finding out additional. What you find may shock you and edify you, yet in any case it is exceptionally intriguing. One final recommendation I would provide for anybody, is since AI can be utilized for fortunate or unfortunate, watch whose hands it falls into.

Write an analysis of 2000 words of one of the following Hong Kong Essay

Compose an investigation of 2000 expressions of one of the accompanying Hong Kong films - Essay Example Besides the military craft of Kung Fu generally acclaimed in China is found to go about as a typical trick piece for some Chinese, Japanese and Hollywood movies. Further perception made proposes that the Chinese military work of art, Kung Fu has earned a figure proclamation. With Kung Fu for the most part manly bodies with high force muscles procuring a tremendous vision is for the most part attached to. In this manner, the military craft of Kung Fu has been related to a body type joined by substantial audio cues like screeches and crashes. To this degree, it is discovered that the Chinese hand to hand fighting movies are the results of a culture blend. (Chase, 2-3). The hand to hand fighting utilized in the Chinese film industry in the late 1960s radiated from the strategies utilized by the Samurai type of Japanese Martial Art. Research made recommends that in the previous times of Hong Kong film industry the Chinese type of military craftsmanship attracted an anecdotal centrality to that of the western activity films. In addition it was discovered that the Kung Fu type of Chinese military craftsmanship was mixed with other realistic instruments, for example, parody, trick and activity filled shenanigans. Indeed, even it is seen that film stars who were beforehand notable for their military workmanship abilities currently utilizing less of military craftsmanship aptitudes and concentrating on indicating tricks and jokes. The degree of tricks utilized in the Hong Kong activity films owes their commitment with the impact of Chinese Opera on the battling stars. Nonetheless, it is perceived that still the battling movement has a nearby likeness to t he customary hand to hand fighting structure. The Kung Fu type of military workmanship discovers its association with the Southern piece of the Chinese republic. Northern China was increasingly worried about the appearance of blade battling procedures utilized in real life films. Nonetheless, the utilization of Kung Fu in the Hong Kong activity films has helped the films gain a worldwide notoriety in a limited ability to focus time. The Kung Fu films

Topics For A Persuasive Essay About Latinos

Topics For A Persuasive Essay About LatinosUsing issues that Latinos face as the basis for your arguments in a persuasive essay is a powerful tool to use. These topics will keep your audience's attention and let you ask the right questions.The first and most important part of any persuasive essay is to make your case and convince the reader that you are the best candidate for the job. You can do this by going into detail about the experiences of people that have been a positive experience for you. By talking about how they deal with your difficulties or frustrations, you will build trust in your reader.Keep in mind that personal relationships play a huge role in the success of the people in your life. If you and your significant other have had ups and downs, if one of you has committed a mistake, and you have both suffered through them together, it is likely that you will have a more successful future together. This fact alone will make you more effective and persuasive when you are writing an essay about Latino issues.Because we all know that racism against Hispanics is widespread, you want to focus on this issue. Also, you want to discuss the benefits that Hispanics receive when they are given citizenship or if they live in a country where they are more accepted. You need to convince the reader that their life would be better if they were able to become citizens or even if they live in a country where they are accepted.Another persuasive essay topic that you should consider when you are writing about Latinos is their experience with your mother and father. If your parents and grandparents are immigrants, this will make your argument stronger. Remember that people look at their parents as a role model, so by talking about their achievements will let them know that you are successful as well. Furthermore, you can also share stories about how your parents helped you out in your childhood, or even about your dad being an excellent cook.In order to find the best t opics for a persuasive essay about Latinos, you want to focus on things that are not too difficult or complicated to talk about at a conversational level. Remember that when you are writing this essay, you want to be as basic as possible. People who are sensitive to language and tone, will be able to understand what you are trying to say without having to read too much.In addition to these topics, you will also want to talk about how immigration is affecting the Hispanic community. Even though Hispanic immigrants are responsible for bringing in millions of dollars each year to the United States, many of them are not receiving proper housing, education, or employment. Remember that you should be able to talk about what is going on in the community in order to build support. If you show people that you are a good and honest citizen, they will look up to you.In conclusion, you want to use topics for a persuasive essay about Latinos that are easy to write about. Remember that your topic s need to be straight forward and simple to relate to the audience. They also need to be conversational in nature, so that they appeal to the readers on a basic level and give them the trust and confidence to follow your arguments.

Religious Cultural Muslims

Religious conversion, cultural identity and national belonging: The world of Bulgarian Muslims (Pomaks). Introduction It is always interesting to immerse in the mysterious past and to discover how the sense of national identity is created and transformed over the years. Throughout olden times and until now, cultural margins have shrunk or expanded, established nations and minorities within these have interacted with and influenced each other, religious and cultural conversions have frequently taken place and in the melting pot of history new distinctive uniqueness has begun to exist. This is particularly valid when the case of Bulgarian Muslims is discussed. Moreover, it is important to recognise here that the world of Bulgarian Muslims or Pomaks has been a subject of endless speculations and ethnic and political claims over the years and it is still very much unknown to the Western European ethnological and historical research literature. Much of the translated work that refers to the Pomaks is from Greek, Serbian, Turkish or Macedonian origin. Therefore it is, fair to say that the story of this Muslim enclave that inhibits mostly Bulgarian territories and speaks Bulgarian language, must be considered from a Bulgarian point of view and this is the main aim here. Consequently, this essay will examine the world of Bulgarian Muslims or Pomaks, their religious conversion from Christianity to Islam and the formation and transformation of their cultural identity and sense of national belonging. To accomplish all this, the essay will firstly discuss the religious conversion of the Pomaks, its background, character, mode and outcomes and how it has laid the foundations of Bulgarian Muslims cultural identity. In addition, this paper will comment on the transformation of the cultural identity and sense of national belonging of Bulgarian Muslims. Finally, it will conclude with thoughts on self-perception, perception of others and future hopes. Definition of the term Bulgarian Muslims or Pomaks Before elaborating further on all abovementioned points, there is a need to establish and define the term Bulgarian Muslims and describe it in Bulgarian context. In order to achieve this, two reliable sources will be cited. Commenting on the issue of cultural belonging and religious identity of Muslims in Bulgaria, Kemal Karpat, a Turkish historian and researcher, states that: The Muslim identity of these populations consisted outwardly of certain objective symbols and acts such as names and ritualsand at their place of origin they tended to identify themselves with Islam in terms of social behaviour, rather than in terms of a political systemand possessed a passive communal Muslim identity (1990, pp. 131-132). In his The hijra from Russia and the Balkans: the process of self-definition in the late Ottoman state, he argues that the largest population group in the area that is now Bulgaria, was the Muslim population group. In terms of spoken language, he endorses that they spoke Slavic (1990, pp.132-134). In his Turkish brutality in Bulgaria and in the Balkan Peninsula (2007, pp. 41-62), the well-known Bulgarian historian, researcher and writer Hristo Krasin, presents a different point of view to that of Kemal Karpat. He argues that all modern Bulgarian population has a strong Bulgarian ethnic origin and comprises of four groups. The first group consists of Bulgarians, who speak Bulgarian language and are Eastern Orthodox Christians. The second one consists of Bulgarians, who recognise themselves as Bulgarian speaking Muslims with Bulgarian or Turkish national identity. The third one consists of Bulgarian speaking Muslims, who recognise themselves as ethnic Turks because their Bulgarian national identity was partially erased over the centuries due to the aggressive assimilation politic of the Turkish Empire. The last group consists of Bulgarian individuals, who speak Bulgarian and Turkish languages. They recognise themselves as ethnic Turks, whose religions are Christianity and Islam and whose Bulgarian national identity was fully erased under centuries of Turkish Islamic brutality in Bulgaria. This classification of ethnic and religious groups only appears to be straightforward. In the context of the tricky ethic and religious relationships in Bulgaria and in the Balkans, nothing is ever simple. Hence, the purpose of this essay is not to involve the reader in a discussion of the suggested categorisation or its validity or reliability but to establish some clarity into the complicated issue of ethnicity and identity of the Bulgarian-speaking Muslims and their ethnic, cultural and national identity and self-perception. Subsequently, this paper will confine itself to the Bulgarian-speaking Muslims, further referred to as Bulgarian Muslims or Pomaks. Religious conversion: Pomaks until 1878 As it already beginning to emerge, the case of the Pomaks is complicated and a number of debates around it, display very strong positions and conflicting opinions. In order to appreciate all points of view and in search for the truth, it is imperative to consider the historical background of the issue. The existence of closed Muslim societies in Bulgaria is the direct inheritance of five centuries long Turkish rule over the Balkan Peninsula (Todorova, 1998, p.3). Even though there is no reliable data or figures to inform of population characteristics or major population shifts, some research has been done and there are number of existing theories that explain the size and grouping of Muslim population on the Peninsula. In his Turkish brutality in Bulgaria and in the Balkan Peninsula (2007, p. 23), Hristo Krasin has attempted to assess the character and the effects of these movements. He claims that there were not any significant population transfers from Anatolia to the Balkans between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries and that the military formation send to take the Peninsula over, comprised only of soldiers and there no women travelling with the army. In her Identity (Trans) Formation among Bulgarian Muslims, Maria Todorova, a researcher from The University of California (1998, p.4) argues that the chief historiographical controversy centres on the explanations for the sizeable Muslim population in the Balkans: Colonisation versus Conversion theory. Furthermore, she suggests that by the sixteenth century the settler colonisation process had stopped and yet the percentage of Muslims in the region continued to grow. Thus, the hypothesis offered is that there were a great number of personal conversions to Islam among the non-Muslim population of the Balkans, respectively Bulgaria (Todorova, 1998, p.6). In addition, a whole range of reliable academic research and publications from Bulgarian and Turkish authors, such as Omer Barkan from Istanbul University, Elena Grozdanova from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the Albanian historian Sami Pulaha (all cited in Todorova, 1998, pp. 2-5), refer to data to evidence rapid Muslim population growth in Bulgaria between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries due either colonisation or conversion. In an attempt to join this debate and in discussion of the concrete but complex case of the Bulgarian Muslims or Pomaks, it must be suggested here that although there is evidence to support both theories, the majority of all available sources, also supported by official documents and survived the time registers of the Ottoman empire, shape the idea that religious conversion on a massive scale took place in Bulgaria and respectively in the Balkans (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1982, vol. 3-7). The question is how the conversion from Christianity to Islam was carried out and the answer to this question is directly connected with Pomaks self-identification as Muslims and consequently gives some light into their actions and behavioural characteristics as citizens of the Ottoman Empire until the nineteenth century and independent Bulgaria after that. To discuss the mode of the religious conversion of the Pomaks and emphasise its importance for the formation of their cultural identity and national belonging, it must be made clear here that conversion may occur in one or more of three ways: through voluntary association, by pressure, and by assimilation. Syncretism and strong cultural resistance can also complicate the conversion process (The Applied History Research group, 2000, pp.1-3). There is another raging debate in Bulgarian and Balkan historiographical research literature about the mode of Pomaks conversion to Islam and the co-existence of Bulgarian Christians and Bulgarian Muslims. On the one hand, there are these, who argue that the conversion was forced upon the Christian population of Bulgaria and over the centuries, and especially the seventeen century, there was a mass conversion to Islam in across the country and especially in the mountain Rodopi region. There is a huge amount of literature, both academic and journalistic, supported with reliable and substantial evidence that the alleged obligatory conversion took place. In his Genocide and Holocaust against Bulgarians (2006, p.63), Bulgarian academic historian and writer Georgi Voinov claims that the systematic and focused compulsory conversion to Islam was one of the favourite methods of control and ruling in the Ottoman Empire, well known for its strong assimilation aspirations in order to promote pan-Turkism. To sustain his assertions, Voinov cites numerous sources, based on authentic literature, written by survivors or witnesses from fourteenth to eighteenth centuries. He also claims that there are official registers of the Ottoman Empire that had also captured those events and give objective information and statistics of all the atrocities that took place in the name of Islam and in order to erase Bulgarian national identity among the Bulgarian population (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1982, vol. 3-7). All abovementioned sources affirm that Islam in Bulgaria was not accepted voluntary but under duress. In the History Reader: The Rodopi mountain through the centuries (1966, p. 78), Bulgarian historian Peter Petrov cites a source from the sixteenth century that talks of 325 thousand young Bulgarian youths forcefully converted to Islam and taken to Anatolia to commence military service in the Turkish army. Only the boys number was known, for the girls, no-one has ever known. It is claimed, that conversion took place in 1515 and under the command of Selim Pasha. There are also endless lists from administrative Ottoman registers reporting evidence that Islam was not accepted on voluntary basis. Mass conversions took place in 1620, 1633, 1669, 1705, 1720, 1803, all of those through fire and sword, drowning in blood any resistance from the local Christian population (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1982, vol. 3-7). On the other hand, there are those academic writers and journalists, who for one reason or another and in an attempt to politicise the issue of Bulgarian Muslims, are nowadays trying to reassess historical events. Special attention is given to the religious and cultural conversion in Bulgaria. In the recently published second edition of his book The Mohammedan Bulgarians (2007, pp. 5-12), Bulgarian researcher and writer Stojan Raichevski asserts that change to Islam was forced upon the Christian Bulgarians by the power of the sword to a minimal degree but there were many other, more important reasons and economic factors, that played a key role, such as preferential taxation and trading agreements for Muslims in the Empire, the greed of the Greek Orthodox clergy, the conflict between the Bogomils and the Orthodox Church, etc. In addition, Kemal Karpat comments that at the time when their land was conquered, the Slavic speaking Muslims were under the authority of their local feudal lords and accepted Islam as the new faith as it supposedly was close to their native faith of Bogomilism, a mixture of Christianity, paganism and Manichaeism. In doing so, they hoped to preserve their land holdings and ethnic identity. Furthermore, according to the Applied History Research group of the University of Calgary (2000, p.1), although conversion by pressure cannot be termed voluntary, the degree of force and coercion varies greatly. Indeed, military conquest was typically followed by the application of subtler pressures, such as commercial or judicial sanctions, to enforce the requirement of the new rulers. Economic pressure was just as effective as an unrestrained military subjugation. Thinking objectively and considering all points of view and available data, one does not doubt here that many factors acted as an incentive to mass Islamic conversions in Bulgaria. What is interesting to communicate through this piece of work is that the combination of the different modes of conversion: by voluntary association, by pressure, and by assimilation, was accompanied with syncretism that determined some degree of cultural adaptation. It did, in turn, also provoke fierce cultural resistance and martyrdom from a large part of the Christian population. Hence, here was the historical picture in Bulgaria. On the one hand, those Bulgarians, who surrendered their religion for one reason or another, became Bulgarian Muslims or Pomaks. They continued speaking Bulgarian language and the local area dialect, build their houses in Bulgarian architectural traditions, saved some elements of their old dress code, continued to recognise themselves as Bulgarians but built mosques, celebrated Eid and enjoyed preferential treatment from the Ottoman rulers. However, over the centuries they were exposed to the influences of their adopted Islamic religion and the aggressive pan-Turkism promoted in the Ottoman Empire and through blending of various aspects of different cultural customs and religious rituals or syncretism, somewhat new cultural arrangements took place. Bulgarian Muslims adapted culturally to the life in the Empire and although preserving their Slavic language and some sense of Bulgarian national identity, their levels of cultural adaptation reached much greater heights than those among the Christian Bulgarian population. Due to this fact and over the centuries, the Pomaks have tried to self-define themselves in terms of national conciseness and have become vulnerable to influences and an object of hatred or even political struggle. On the other hand, while Bulgarian Muslims were going through the process of cultural assimilation, the larger part of the Bulgarian population withstood the pressure, continued to observe their faith and traditions, regularly rebelled against the Turkish rulers and took part in more than fifty military conquests against the Turks, led by different European rulers. All Bulgarian uprisings against the Ottoman Sultans, fourteen in total in Bulgaria itself (Voinov, 2006, p.26), were drowned in blood. What needs clarification here is one, not very well popularised fact: Bulgarian Muslims took active part in the suppression and crushing of many of the rebellions. This, in turn, raises many questions, with one most imperative. What were the reasons that in the same ethnic population group, some of its members took the way of conversion and cultural adaptation but the others chose cultural resistance, martyrdom and self-martyrdom? How could these two groups live in relative peace under Ottoman rule but when an uprising against the Turks took place, Bulgarian Muslims ferociously and viciously attacked their Christian neighbours and fought on the side of the Turks, committing acts of unheard of cruelty and brutality? Their participation in the crushing of the April uprising of 1876 is notorious and it was described by the American writer and journalist Janarius Aloysius McGahan, who was one of the greatest war correspondents in the nineteenth century. In his American witness (2002, 3rd Ed.), Bulgarian historian Teodor Dimitrov has published McGahans notes about the atrocities in Batak, Bulgaria, and they read: We spoke with many women, who had been through all stages of torture without the last one, death. The procedure, as it seemed, was the following: the Turks would take a woman, undress her, putting aside her valuables, gang-rape her and the last one, who had her, would kill her or let her go, depending on his mood. What McGahan does not note here is that the Turks were not alone in the slaughter of the rebels. They are aided by their helpers, the local Pomak population, Greeks and other small ethnic groups. Thus, Christian Bulgarians fought for freedom, while Muslim Bulgarians took part in the massacre of their uprising. What could have possibly provoked someone to behave in such a way? According to Doinov et al. (2001, p.112), the shown cruelty was an outburst of the deep national and religious hatred against the oppressed nationalities in the Ottoman Empire, that has been groomed and encouraged for centuries by the ruling powers. However, something else was at work there too. Kemal Karpat (1990, p.136) explains that Balkan Muslims, although living in a hostile Christian European world, remained largely apolitical. However, their passive cultural-religious consciousness was easily converted to a dynamic Muslim identity when the circumstances required. Perhaps when Bulgarian Muslims were faced with an unconditional act of resistance in the most dramatic form: suicide and self-martyrdom (2000, p.3), those acted as catalyst and the Pomaks replied with repression and brutality. Ekaterina Peychinova, Director of the Museum of History in Batak describes what drove the oppressors mad: For three days and three nights the people inside the church held together, and the shooting outside did not stop for a minute. At the end of the third day they gave in and opened the gates of the church. But then they had only two options: either become Muslims or die. Every single one of them chose death. (cited in Ivanova, 2008, p.1) The horrific power of those events and the depth of feelings and emotions are overwhelming. Keeping in mind that Bulgarian Christians and Bulgarian Muslims are from the same ethnic origin and the same blood flows in their veins, have religious and cultural conversion, syncretism and assimilation have changed the latter so much that they could commit such acts and have identity switch over, allowing for full degradation of human values? This essay does not have the ambitious goal to answer all those questions. History gives the answers and it will do the same here too. Many years have gone since those ghastly days and Pomaks sense of cultural identity and national belonging has evolved and changed again as Bulgarian Muslims themselves were at the receiving end of numerous assimilation governmental campaigns and strategies from 1878 until now. Cultural identity and national belonging of Bulgarian Pomaks Due to the fact that the Bulgarian speaking Muslims took an active part in the suppressing the April uprising of 1876, they did not enjoy friendly treatment from their Christian neighbours. With the advancement of the Russian armies in 1878, retaliation began and a substantial part of the Pomaks immigrated to the Ottoman empire, refusing to live under the rule of the giaurs or infidels. Many others took part in the Rodopi mutiny and lived in the so-called Pomak republic for about eight years until 1886, when the participating villages were included in the Ottoman Empire but only until the Balkan wars (Todorva, 1998, p.9). Furthermore, in the Ottoman Population: 1830-1914 (1985, p.78), Kemal Karpat cites Ottoman statistics, indicating that the total population of the Empire rose by about 40% in the period 1860-1878 due to coercive measures by Russia and Bulgaria. He mentions that among the Balkan migrants there were large groups of Slavic-speaking Bosnians, Herzegovinians, Montenegrins and Pomaks with a negative sense of ethnic identity, as they considered themselves as Muslims but not Osmanlis (Turks). Thus, judging by the actions of the Pomaks, the question that must be asked here is: did the Pomaks have a Turkish or Bulgarian cultural and national identity at the end of the nineteen and beginning of twentieth century and is it possible to differentiate between religious and ethnic belonging? The Pomaks, who immigrated to the Ottoman Empire, had their cultural identity politicised and defined as Muslim and Turkish under the influence of the local political and ethnic culture (Karpat, 1990, p.137). Unfortunately, the Pomaks, who stayed in Bulgaria, did not have the opportunity to decide for themselves freely because during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, they were subjected to a number of keen campaigns to accept and recognise them as part of the Bulgarian nation or narod, starting from 1920-s and continuing until the mid-80-s. In 1942, the first ever mass attempt to change the names of the Bulgarian Muslims to Bulgarian names took place. It was a result of the work of the Pomaks own organisation, called Rodina or Motherland. Consisting mainly of teachers, Rodina strove to improve the position of the Pomaks in Bulgarian society and to save them from the growing resentment and marginalisation. In the context of the Third Bulgarian Kingdom (1878 1944) and its nationalistic ambitions and assimilative tendencies, it is important to acknowledge here that Motherlands actions were justified in terms of seeking a national, cultural and linguistic unity of the Bulgarian society and the difficulties that the Pomaks could have faced, if tried to fit in that society. What is questionable here is the Pomaks desire to fit in. Although the Pomaks have, at that point, lost the very close contact with their original cultural authority, the Ottoman Empire, they were still in favour of their religious affiliation and were not willing to adapt to the fresh, language-based identity actively promoted by the modern Bulgarian state at that time (Todorova, 1998, p. 11). Another problem here is the attitude of the Christian Bulgarians, whose national consciousness was determined by religious and linguistic boundaries. Were they ready to forget the Ottoman rule and April 1876 and to accept the Pomaks as part of the Bulgarian nation and allow assimilation? Could adaptation and adoption take place and the complex issue of national identity, belonging and unity be resolved peacefully and once and for all? What is better: common national identity and national unity or multi-cultural society? During communist rule in the 1960-s, 1970-s and 1980-s, various Bulgarian governments tried to resolve the issue through numerous heavy-handed assimilation campaigns, when all Muslim names were changed to Bulgarian names, an attempt was made to form a united Bulgarian nation in order to neutralise nationalistic ambitions and claims from neighbouring Turkey. After the democratic reforms from 1989, all ethnic and religious groups in Bulgaria gained the freedom to self-identify themselves and promote their national and religious distinctiveness. All Muslim names were restored and seemingly the great effort to create a united Bulgarian national identity had ended. Hence, the national identity and cultural belonging of the Pomaks are somewhat fluid and non-defined, and the coming generations will have the chance to accomplish the process of integration or affiliation as they choose. It is, however, ultimate to accept the lessons of history and to abolish all attempts to forcefully create a single identity with identical religious or national characteristics. Cultural conversion through co-operation and co-existence is frequently welcome by small or big population groups, whilst conversion by pressure, conflict and aggressive assimilation is rejected and leads to confusion, hatred and frequently violent resistance. Conclusion In conclusion, it must be recognised here that the case of Bulgarian Muslims or Pomaks is of complex nature and the issue of defining their national identity and cultural belonging is still unresolved. There are many more questions to ask and answer and many more avenues to explore in order to establish which one of the national identity constituents is the most influential and possess the ultimate formative power. Consequently, it is the greatest regret of this work that it is impossible to analyse or develop fully all themes, ideas and debates in connection with the cultural identity, national belonging and self-perception of the Pomaks, when the number of words is restricted and there is lack of the research available. However, one humbly hopes to have offered here, merely an attempt of discussion on the important issues of cultural and religious identity and how they shape the very centre of the human concept of self. Finally, it must be emphasised here that the writing of this essay has been a vast learning experience for the author, an opportunity to study, investigate and explore the world of Bulgarian Muslims and be taught lessons that put historical and contemporary events into perspective. Bibliography Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (1982). History of Bulgaria. Sofia: BAN Press, vol. 3-7. Dimitrov, T. (2002). American witness. 3rd Ed. Geneva: Geneva press. Doinov, D., Jechev, N. Kosev, K. (2001). The April uprising and the fate of the Bulgarian nation. Sofia: Academic Press Professor Marin Drinov. Ivanova, M. (2008). St. Nedelya church in Batak. Available from: https://www.pravoslavieto.com. (Accessed: 12 April 2008). Karpat, K. (1985). Ottoman Population: 1830-1914. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Karpat, K. (1990). The hijra from Russia and the Balkans: the process of self-definition in the late Ottoman state. In: Eickelman, D. Piscatori, J. (Ed.). Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, migration, and the religious imagination. Los Angeles: University of California Press, Chapter 7, pp. 131-152. Krasin, H. (2007). Turkish brutality in Bulgaria and in the Balkan Peninsula. (Turskite porazii v Bulgaria i na Balkanskia Poluostrov). Sofia: Svetovit Press. Petrov, P. (1966). History Reader: The Rodopi mountain through the centuries. Sofia: BKP Press. Rajcevski, S. (2004). The Mohammedan Bulgarians (Pomaks). (Balgarite Mohamedani). Sofia: Bulgarian Bestseller Press. The Applied History Research Group. (2000) Old World Contacts. Available from: https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history. (Accessed: 14 April 2008). Todorova, M. (1998). Identity (Trans) Formation among Bulgarian Muslims. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. Voinov, G. (2006). Genocide and Holocaust against Bulgarians. (Genotsidad i Holokostat sreshtu Balgarite.) Sofia: Arateb Press.

The Evolution of the Mexican American Civil Rights...

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