Microsoft Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Microsoft - Essay Example r of business organizations compete with Microsoft using an open source commercial model by adjusting and then dispensing open source software to customers at insignificant costs and thus earn revenue on complimentary products and services. Such businesses do not bear the total costs of development and research for the software. Further, advertising-based firms models look for revenue through delivering third party adverts to final consumers who get the software at no direct cost as Microsoft pays for the costs indirectly. Benefits in market acceptance of advertising or open source based software may unfavorably affect the company’s revenue, sales, and operating margins. The total subscription and license costs can vary depending on the available license levels and having a Software Assurance license. Microsoft Company has adapted the Elixir Workflow system, which is rich, web-based settings that that lets Microsoft connect many processes and people into certain business projects or activities. By using this technology, predefined business rules are achieved to get the company on toes. It manages and tracks different tasks linked to a project from distinct actions to approvals. This technology has helped Microsoft to visualize its daily operations and identify areas of productivity advancements. The Elixir Workflow System is configured based on the rights of the users and preferences. This ensures efficiency in production processes and security for the products (Lopatka and Page, 2007) With the use of Elixir, multiple applications can be achieved with only one interface. This provides Microsoft with a flawless approach to interoperability. For precise productivity, the system offers a full set of trading process management operations including decisions and branching, event-driven interactions, and automated activities. Generally, the Elixir Workflow System is a significant technology to Microsoft’s productivity as it integrates various Computer programs

Left to Tell Essay Example for Free

Left to Tell Essay Immaculee Ilibagiza was a college student in Rwanda during the 1994 genocide in which nearly one million people died. Her story is a remarkable testimony to the power of God’s grace to strengthen us during times of trial and to live the teaching of the Gospel in the face of overwhelming evil. Her story is told in the novel Left to Tell, published in 2006. In Rwanda, there were three tribes, and each citizen belonged to one of the tribes. These tribes were the Hutu, which were the majority, Tutsi, which were the minority, and an extremely small number of Twa, which was a pygmy-like tribe of forest dwellers. Immaculee and her family belonged to the Tutsi tribe, and because of this they were under great threat. The Hutu tribe wanted to kill every single Tutsi in Rwanda, and this was the cause of the genocide in 1994. The Tutsi tribe was taller, lighter-skinned and has narrower noses, and Hutus were shorter, darker, and have broad noses, and each person had an identity card which labeled what tribe they were in. This is how the Hutus chose their victims, by their identity card or their looks. Not only was Immaculee under death threat, but she was also being treated unfairly by her peers. She was an extremely smart girl, and because of her being a Tutsi, she was not able to get a scholarship to college. Before the genocide came into full effect, there were many reports on the radio warning the Tutsis of killings to come. One day, Damascene, one of Immaculee’s three brothers, told his family that he actually saw the killers, but they refused to believe him. They started to get nervous when President Habyarimana, the president of Rwanda, was killed. His plane was shot out of the sky, and this event sparked the beginning of the genocide. The more severe the radio reports were, the more nervous Immaculee and family got. Immaculee tried not to show her fear, because if she did, she would not be able to stay strong through this event. Many neighbors gathered around her home because her father, Leonard, was a very respectable man in the neighborhood. One day, fifty Interahamwe armed with knives and machetes attacked the Tutsis outside of the Ilibagiza home. Leonard gathered more than one hundred Tutsi men together and rushed toward the killers. They tossed stones at them and scared them away. After this, Immaculee’s father gave her a red and white rosary and told her to keep it always, and she did. The killers came back a second time, but this time no one joined Leonard to fight back. After this event, it was known that it was not safe, and Immaculee could not stay at her home. Immaculee and Augustine, a friend who was staying with the Ilibagiza family, were soon on their way to the home of family friend and local pastor, Pastor Murinzi. There, she was forced to hide in a small bathroom with seven other women, and there she had many spiritual experiences. While Immaculee was hiding in the bathroom, she could hear the killers and other people talking about what was going on. Immaculee still did not know whether or not her family was alive. She cursed the killers, and hoped that they got treated as they were treating her fellow Tutsis. Because of this feeling, Immaculee could not have a feeling of calmness, and she was very angry. She prayed, but the devil was telling her that praying would not work, when she has so much hatred in her heart, and is wishing such horrible things on the killers. In a dream, Jesus appeared to her, and told her to forgive the killers and to stay calm and he would protect her. She did as Jesus said, and forgave the killers, and she was one of the few whose life was spared during the genocide. Some people do not pray, and do not have God in their lives. These are the people that contribute to the evil and destruction of the world. The killers of the 1994 genocide were definitely evil, and they were being tempted by the devil to do such evil acts. Lies were made up just so they could kill Leonard, and the rest of the Ilibagiza family, who were very well respected in the town. Some people do not think over their actions, and do not make the distinction between what is right and wrong. Some people just listen to other people because they are scared, so they do evil things, just because someone told them to. Unfortunately, I do believe that something this terrible may happen in our own country. In the last decade, some evil things have happened in America, such as the planes hitting the World Trade Center on 9/11 and the plane hitting the Pentagon, in the same day. Islamic people performed both of these evil acts. Most Americans have hatred for these people, and some especially because loved ones died in the World Trade Center. Since then, there have been bomb scares, and the hatred has just been building up. If another tragedy occurs, Americans will most likely rebel, and want these people extinguished from the country, whether they look innocent or not, just for the sake of the country. It is much better to forgive, than to hate and hold grudges. By forgiving, you are following in Jesus’ path and becoming a better person. By hating and seeking revenge, you will harbor hatred in your heart and be an extremely angry person for always thinking of ways to get revenge. I have learned that by forgiving, instead of hating, your prayers will be answered quicker. By following in the footsteps of Jesus, forgiving all who have harmed you, you will be a happier person, and by God being an important part of your life, you will have a good life. I will most definitely live differently after reading this book. Nothing in my life has ever compared to anything that Immaculee went through, and I should be extremely grateful for that. I will try to forgive all who have done wrong to me, and although it may not be easy, I know that God is there guiding me every step of the way.

Odyssey Theme Paper :: essays research papers

The Odyssey Theme Paper   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Odyssey is mainly about the tribulations of a great hero; that hero would be Odysseus. Although Odysseus does not appear in this epic until the fifth book, he is still the main character. Odysseus, whom I will call the hero, has many tribulations in this epic. Read on to see what I mean.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This story starts right after the Trojan War; the Greeks have won, thanks to one of Odysseus’ great ideas. All the kings are now trying to get back home to their families. Odysseus, however, will have the most problems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first place Odysseus goes after the war is the land of the Ciconians. He and his men raid the island and destroy the village. However the next day, more Ciconians arrive and defeat Odysseus and his men. Several men are killed, and Odysseus experiences his first of many sorrows and tribulations. Next, the hero goes to the land of the lotus-eaters. Some of his men eat the lotus plant and instantly want to stay there and never leave. Odysseus manages to get his men away from the island, and they leave. Then the hero arrives at the home of Polyphemos. Polyphemos is a huge cyclops and also a cannibal. Odysseus and twelve of his men are trapped inside Polyphemos’ cave and can’t get out. Polyphemos comes back and eats some of the hero’s men. The next night Odysseus gets the cyclops drunk on wine, and when it falls asleep, Odysseus and his remaining men blind it with a large pole. He and his men barely escape with their lives and continue on the voyage. The hero soon lands on Aeolus’ island. (Aeolus is the Keeper of the Winds.) He helps Odysseus on his way by giving him the right winds to take him home to Ithaca. The hero gets within site of his home but a hurricane blows him all the way back to Aeolus’ island. This time Aeolus turns Odysseus away, and he is forced to continue his journey. The hero and his men next end up in the Land of the Midnight Sun, where the Laestrygonians live. The Laesrtygonians attack the men and sink eleven of the twelve ships. Only Odysseus’ ship and forty-four men escape to safety. This is one of the most painful tribulations Odysseus faces on his journey. Soon afterwards, Odysseus and his now small crew arrive on Circe’s island.

Evaluate the Importance of Ecosystem Management and Protection Essay

Evaluate the importance of ecosystem management and protection Every living thing on Earth belongs to an ecosystem. An ecosystem can be as small as a puddle or as large as an ocean. No matter its size, every ecosystem is vital to life on Earth, and requires human respect, support, management and protection. The term â€Å"ecosystem† refers to a community of plants and animals that share a common space and common resources, and are all dependent on one another for survival. Ecosystems are characterised by the complex interactions between these abiotic and biotic environments which involves a number of major systems such as the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Ecosystems are delicately balanced. If one component fails to thrive, the others become weakened, and may fail as well. If one ecosystem fails, neighboring ecosystems become threatened as well. Ecosystems are under constant and increasing threat of disruption from natural forces, invasive species and human development. Although ecosystems are dynamic, they are also fragile. Natural forces such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can destroy ecosystems. Depending on the severity, ecosystems may take a long time to recover, such as the slow rate of recovery from volcanic eruption. However natural disturbances do not occur often, or are on a regular basis, such as the El Nino or tornado. Human disturbances to the ecosystem however, occur on a regular basis. For example, the logging of the Amazonian trees at the rate of one football field per second. The constant degrading to the environment means there is no time for the ecosystem to resist the change hence resulting in a simplified, modified and eventual disclimax ecosystem Human have modified natural ecosystems in many ways intentionally and unintentionally but the distinction is not always clear. An example of an intentional modification to ecosystems would be construction of a dam on a river. The unintentional changes that could result from this might be the extinction of some species that needed shallow water to survive. There are other ways that humans have changed the ecosystems such as destroying, degrading and simplifying ecosystems. Agricultural land use often requires the wholesale clearing of land to grow single crops or graze animals. This monoculture system simplifies the complex interrelationships existing in natural ecosystems and is maintained through pesticides and fertilisers. Urban land creates greatly modified ecosystems. The vast quantities of fertilisers, herbicides and esticides are required to sustain the yields of the crops. The runoff pollutes streams, lakes and oceans and causes changes to their ecosystems. Human-induced changes in one ecosystem usually have cascading and unpredictable effects on other inter-related ecosystems through their nutrient cycles. Human-induced modifications to nutrients cycles are numerous and vary in scale from local to global. The clearing and removal of timber from a rainforest disrupts the nutrient cycle in these low-fertility ecosystems. The apparent richness of the rainforest ecosystem is a result of the recycling of nutrients stored in the trees and leaves. The soils are typically shallow and leached because of heavy rainfall. If the timber is removed, the nutrients are not recycled and the soil is not replenished. In addition, once the protection offered by the trees and their root systems is removed, rapid erosion occurs, removing the shallow topsoil and making regeneration of the rainforest a long, slow process that may take centuries, if it is allowed to happen. Ecosystems have various key features that determine the relationship between their biophysical components and that include interdependence, diversity, resilience, adaptability, unpredictability and limits set by abiotic and biotic factors. Human simplify ecosystems and attempt to control them for their own purposes. There are many complex interrelationships between biophysical components in natural ecosystems that are disrupted through human activities. Some of these disruptions create feedback loops that adversely affect activities. If crocodiles were not protected in Australia, for example, their role as a keystone species would be threatened. When hunting of crocodiles was permitted, the saltwater species was on the brink of extinction. Since the protection, their numbers have built up to pre-hunting levels and the estuarine ecosystems where they live are more balance. All of the Earth’s plants and animals rely on ecosystems to provide food and habitat. Ecosystems must maintain a delicate balance in order to stay vital. For example, a deer living in the meadow ecosystem needs water to drink, vegetation to eat and shrubs and bracken to sleep and hide in. If the deer population increases too much for their current ecosystem to provide these things, the extra deer will have to search for food and shelter elsewhere, encroaching on the habitats and ecosystems of other species. Humans also rely on ecosystems to provide food and natural resources. For example, the wood used to create lumber for building and pulp for paper comes from the Earth’s many forest ecosystems. When natural resources are harvested out of an ecosystem, it can disrupt the delicate balance if not done in a responsible way. According to the United Nations funded researches, 60% of the ecosystems on Earth are being used up faster than they can replenish themselves. Recent advancement in science and technology has help humans become more aware of the need to protect and manage the inestimable value of the ecosystem for humans and the world in terms of their genetic, utility, intrinsic, and heritage values, as well as perceiving the need to allow natural change and thus evolution to proceed. The ecosystems of the Earth can be protected through various ways such as responsible use. Heavily cultivated lands planted in single crops can be replaced with diverse cropping systems that help maintain soil productivity and prevent erosion. As homeowners, humans can plant native species that provide food and shelter to animals. These native species tend to grow with less supplemental water and little need for fertilization, which both conserves and protects our water sources. As consumers, humans can buy sustainably grown goods, use fewer disposable products and purchase products with minimal packaging or recyclable packaging. Each act of conservation in our homes, yards and workplaces reduces the stress on our ecosystems and helps maintain the necessary balance to maintain them. Therefore it is very important to protect and manage ecosystems properly for the benefit of all living species including us human beings. Ecosystems rich in diversity generally have greater resilience and are, as a result, able to recover more readily from naturally induced stress, such as drought and fire, and human-induced habitat degradation. Where diversity is diminished, the functioning of ecosystems and by association the wellbeing of people is put at risk. Biological diversity or biodiversity covers these areas – genetic diversity, species diversity and ecological diversity. Genetic diversity is the variety of genetic material contained in all individual plants, animals and micro-organisms. Ecosystems rich in genetic diversity generally have greater resilience and therefore are able to recover more readily from natural and human stresses. Where diversity is low, ecosystem functioning is often at risk. Ecosystems have utility value and this is concerning the usefulness of ecosystems in monetary terms. Recent study estimated that total value of goods and services provided by the earth’s ecosystems is US$33 trillion. This means that all the living and the non-living components of the earth’s ecosphere have either an existing or potential utility value or usefulness. By maintaining and protecting ecosystems we maximise humanity’s ability to adapt to change. The sheer diversity of life represents a vast store of genetic material that can be tapped as human needs change. The loss of a species – whether plant, animal fungus, bacterium or virus denies humanity possible future source of food, medicine, chemicals, fibres and other materials. Their protection is critical to the physical wellbeing of humanity. Ecosystems are endowed with their own intrinsic and ethical value, that is, they have the right to exist irrespective of their utility value. While few would disagree with such a sentiment, and most people would support the view that we need to protect ecosystems for the benefit of future generations, there is still no generally agreed mechanism or strategy by which this could be achieved. Central to the notion of the intrinsic value of ecosystems is a recognition that the biophysical environment provides for many of the inspirational, aesthetic and spiritual needs of people. Heritage protection of areas seen as having outstanding universal value. In Australia, the Royal National Park was dedicated as an area of outstanding heritage as early as 1879. The latter half of the 20th Century saw the emergence of great concern for the heritage value of ecosystems. The Australian heritage Commission views natural heritage, worthy of National Estate listing, to include those places, being components of the natural environment of Australia or the cultural environment of Australia, that have aesthetic, historic, scientific or social significance or other special value for future generations, as well as for the present community. The Great Barrier Reef is one of the heritage areas named by the World heritage listings. Because of the numerous values and benefits of ecosystems, they need to be managed properly using management strategies such as exclusion/preservation strategy. That is the habitat and species are totally protected from human activity of any kind. For instances, Wildlife Management and this is where humans make use of the wildlife either through ecotourism as in the African game parks or through hunting as in many of north American parks. The aims of managing wildlife are to manipulate wildlife populations and their environments for their survival and for human benefits. Conservation is one strategy that could be used to manage ecosystems. There is limited impact on ecosystems through sustainable use of resources. Scientists believe a minimum of 10% of the land area of the Earth needs to be protected to conserve ecosystems, their biodiversity and integrity from human activities. Some developing countries have little of their land protected. The major priority in selecting a site for a reserve is to protect fragile ecosystems under threat. Some of these take thousands of years to form and can never be recreated if lost. In an ideal world, the management strategies would select the best combination of these factors to preserve the ecosystems at risk. In reality however, the choice of site is often limited to what is available after other human demands have been satisfied. This compromise puts ecosystems at risk further pressure. Some difficulties confronting management of ecosystems include institutional difficulties. This involves varying regulatory arrangements applied to different land uses in adjacent areas making it difficult to achieve conservation on a landscape scale. Not only that limited corporation between public and private sectors in long-term environmental management to name a few. Ecosystems are modified by humans for sustainable use such as commercial agricultural. Again ecosystems are exploited regardless of the consequences. This results in species extinction, ecosystem destruction and reduction, and possible ecosystem collapse. The way to management and protect ecosystems is to provide public with education that could help decrease this exploitation and destruction of ecosystems. Rehabilitation and restoration of ecosystems are probably the most obvious management strategies that deal with ecosystems that have been damaged or degraded. Examples of such ecosystems are mined, farmed, logged, grazed and burned for a long period of time. Given enough time, the natural processes of ecological succession will eventually repair the ecosystem. But this depends upon the degraded ecosystems being protected and managed so that the natural processes can occur and the ecosystem be sustained. All this is costly and time consuming. If species are extinct, the ecosystem will never return to the pre-disturbance state. One way of protecting and managing ecosystems is o make laws to protect ecosystems. Traditional management of ecosystem is one way of managing ecosystems. Other strategies include restriction on species caught, closed seasons, taboo areas and species, designated areas for hunting groups and individuals, limits to population growth and sustainable methods of hunting were used and resources were not wasted to name a few. To conclude, ecosystems are very hard to manage, protect and conserve especially in the developing countries where populations are exploding and the pressure on the land is intense. The crippling debt most developing countries have and the urge to develop their ecosystem resources represent the real threat to the integrity of global ecosystems. So management strategies needed to protect ecosystems are at a local, national, regional, continental and global level. The management strategies to preserve and conserve ecosystems at risk recognize the need to manage whole ecosystems. This may involve strategies that range from total preservation to sustainable development Furthermore, the management of ecosystem is important to ensure sustainable development, preservation and minimized disturbances and recognition of ecosystem’s importance. Ecosystems change when they are controlled or disturbed. This may be the result of human or natural factors and may be intentional or inadvertent. Intentional changes can produce a number of unforeseen consequences, which creates the need for responsible management. .Management strategies change over time. This is due to changes in environmental quality, technological advances, economic, social and political attitudes.

Marketing Recommendations for Tesco Essay

Tesco, the third largest retailer in the world, underwent a change of leadership in March of 2011. Sir Terry Leahy stepped down after a highly successful 14 year run with the company that saw the retailer reach 30% control of the British market (Anonymous, 2012). However, the last year and a half has seen declining market share and stock prices. Additionally, the long-term growth strategy of penetrating the US and Chinese markets has not gone as well as anticipated (Anonymous, 2012). This fact, combined with the declining British market share and corporate stock price has created a sense of urgency and has brought about the need for Tesco to rethink their current marketing management strategy. When looking at Tesco’s base business model, the majority of their revenues come from the British market. They saw net income of 2.8bn last year (2011), versus 800m when Sir Terry Leahy took over the company in 2002. However, income is expected to drop to 2.6bn in 2012 (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). This lost market share and drop in revenue is directly attributed to Tesco’s failure to maintain its focus on its core business at home in Great Britain. Instead, the focus of the company was, arguably, too forward focused on global growth in both the US market with its Fresh & Easy stores and the Chinese market (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). This global growth strategy not only took focus from the British market, it also took valuable capital dollars from the British stores. The myopic view of global growth over existing British business has brought about a need for Tesco to change  its marketing orientation and bring its attention back to its core British business (Finch, 2012). This will be vital to the long-term success of Tesco, as its competitors have been doing everything to capitalize on Tesco’s lapse of attention. Tesco’s idea of becoming a global competitor is not a mistake. It is a great plan, especially with the growth that many companies have experienced with the opening of the Chinese market and the explosive growth of Chinese spending power and lack of growth in the British market. However, Tesco is guilty of being overly aggressive in their desire to become a global player. They have been very successful in diversifying their business endeavors within their home market. They have expanded into soft drinks and banking, very successfully. Their positioning as a global player could be likened to an army attempting to fight a war on three different fronts (Britain, US, and China). They lack the resources to handle such an ambitious endeavor. I was pleased to read that Philip Clark, Tesco’s CEO, finally ended the Fresh & Easy experiment, and is pulling out of the US market. While this may be interpreted as an admission of failure, I think it shows that Tesco is ready to refocus on their core business. I am not the only one to feel this way, as Tesco shares climbed three percent following the announcement (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). Tesco is still involved in the Chinese market, which has the greatest upside when compared to the US market. This move allows Tesco to focus on a two front fight – attempting to recapture lost British market share while successfully growing share and revenues in the Chinese market by using a well thought out market focused strategy. The withdrawal from the US market should allow Tesco to refocus on the product quality that has been neglected over the past five years. Even though the British market is not growing, Tesco needs to maintain its market dominance and can only do this by investing in its existing product (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). The departure from the US market means that capital expenditures and operating capital should be diminished, allowing those funds to be reallocated to the British stores. This will help support the refocus on product quality announced by Mr. Clark, with a promise to invest 1 billion pounds to revitalize the British operations. With properly spent  funds, Tesco should be able to recapture lost market share, consequently shoring up its core business. When considering the four factors of marketing (price, product, placement, and promotion) Mr. Clark needs to continue with the differentiation strategy they have employed with Tesco’s forays into soft drinks and banking. Utilizing Britain’s largest distribution chain, Tesco could capitalize on the strategy utilized by the US retailer Wal-Mart, and differentiate their stores by offering a variety of businesses (fast food, optical, banking, hair and nail care) under one roof. These moves, if effective, would also provide additional foot traffic to their core retail operations, further increasing market share, and revenues. Tesco must carefully consider the market mix and pricing decisions needed with a strategy such as this. If properly implemented, they could secure Tesco’s market dominance for years to come. Tesco is the largest retailer in Britain, and the third largest retailer in the world. However, being big does not guarantee success, and being a key player in Britain does not mean that you can be a key player in the rest of the world. Tesco has effectively demonstrated these facts over the past four years while trying to break into the US and Chinese markets while ignoring their core British business. Philip Clark, the CEO of Tesco, has realized that the company does not have enough resources to continue to attempt to penetrate the US and Chinese markets and keep their market share in Britain. Mr. Clark has withdrawn from the US market and is refocusing the company’s marketing orientation back to its core business and China. Tesco is refocusing on its product quality by taking the funds that had been allocated for US expansion and reinvesting in their existing store British product. Mr. Clark should consider further differentiation of their British product by following the highly successful model employed by US retailer Wal-Mart of putting multiple businesses under the same roof. Mr. Clark should also continue to focus on succeeding in the Chinese marketplace, the fastest growing market in the world in 2012. If Tesco is able to recapture lost British market share, and can grow at a profitable rate in China, the company will be well positioned for 2013 and the future. References Anonymous (2012, April 21). Supermarket sweep; Tesco’s travails. The Economist, 403, 33-33. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1008901971?accountid=32521 Finch, J. (2012). Managerial Marketing. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Oliver, R. & Armstrong, R. (2012). Tesco – trouble at home. FT.Com, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1239077344?accountid=32521

Julian Abele

Julian Abele Julian Abele (born April 29, 1881 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, according to the University of Pennsylvania University Archives and Records Center) is best known in Durham, North Carolina as the architect of the Duke University campus. The story of Julian Francis Abele is not rags-to-riches but a tale of hard work and dedication. In college Abele called himself Willing and Able. A brilliant and accomplished student, Abele became the first Black graduate of the University of Pennsylvanias School of Architecture. Although not Americas first architect of color, Julian Abele was one of the first prominent Black architects in America, finding success with the Philadelphia architecture firm led by Horace Trumbauer. The Duke University Chapel may be Abeles most famous building. Died: April 23, 1950 in Philadelphia Education, Training, and Professional Life: Institute for Colored Youth and Brown Preparatory School, Philadelphia1898: Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art1902: B.A. in Arch. - University of Pennsylvania1902-1903: Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts; worked for Philadelphia architect Louis C. Hickman while in school1903-1905: traveled to Western US, worked on a house for his sisters family, Elizabeth Rebecca Abele Cookcirca 1905: three years of travel in Europe and study in France1906: began work for Horace Trumbauer; became chief designer in 1909 until Trumbauers death in 1938. The Office of Horace Trumbauer continued under the leadership of its principals, Julian Abele and William O. Frank1942: Admitted to the American Institute of Architects (AIA) Notable Buildings as Trumbauers Chief Designer: 1909-1912: James Buchanan Duke House, New York Cityc. 1912: Frank P. Mitchell house (Argentine Embassy), Washington, DC1915: Miramar (The George D. Widener Cottage), Newport, RI1915: Widener Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA1921: Whitemarsh Hall, Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania1925: Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, PA1927: Central Library, Free Library of Philadelphia, PA1928: James B. Clews Residence, Long Island, NY1930: Perkins Library, Duke University West Campus, Durham, North Carolina1935: Duke University Chapel, West Campus, Durham, North Carolina1938: Duke University Dormitories, West Campus, Durham, NC1940: Cameron Indoor Stadium, Duke University West Campus, Durham, NC At the turn of the twentieth century, many American architects made a good living building Great Homes of the Gilded Age. Horace Trumbauers commission to build a New York City estate for tobacco tycoon James B. Duke really paid off with the much larger projects at Duke University, where Julian Abele made his mark in architecture. Personal Life: 1925: Married to Marguerite Bulle, a French musician; three children, Julian, Jr., Marguerite Marie (died in childhood), and Nadia Boulanger. The marriage dissolved by 1936 when the younger Marguerite became involved with another musician. They never divorced.Julian, Jr. and Abeles sisters child, Julian Abele Cook (1904 - 1986), both became architects Duke University Architecture: In 1892 Trinity College moved 70 miles east to Durham, North Carolina and the Duke family began funding campus building. By 1924, the Duke Endowment was established and Trinity College transformed into Duke University. The original East Campus was renovated with Georgian-style buildings, after the Collegiate Georgian Architecture popular at other universities. Beginning in 1927 a West Campus was added, built in a Gothic-revival architectural style also popular at large, established Ivy League institutions. Architecture was used to bring students, faculty, and prestige to the new Duke institution - if it looked like a university, it must be one. The Philadelphia architecture firm led by Horace Trumbauer began the transformation of Trinity into Duke. Trumbauers head designer Julian Abele, along with William O. Frank, tackled the Duke projects from 1924 to 1958. The pià ¨ce de rà ©sistance of Abeles designs is the iconic Duke Chapel, which became the centerpiece of the West Campus. Collegiate Gothic style is a revival of 12th century Gothic architecture, with soaring ceilings, pointed arches, and flying buttresses. For Dukes Chapel, begun in 1930, Abele employed modern building techniques and materials to eliminate the need to buttress the walls. Steel trusses and structural Guastavino ceramic tile gave strength to the 210 foot structure, while local volcanic Hillsborough bluestone distinguished the distinctive facade of the neo-Gothic design. The Chapel tower, modeled after Englands Canterbury Cathedral, became a prototype for many of the future towers of Duke University. Olmsted landscape architects, from the prestigious firm founded by Frederick Law Olmsted, were employed to create a walkable campus, connecting the architecture with the surrounding natural beauty. If the intent of Duke was to rival the great universities of the northeast, this twentieth century campus, designed in part by a prominent Black architect, accomplished the task. In the Words of Julian Abele: The shadows are all mine. - commenting on the unsigned architectural drawings for the Gothic Revival Duke University Chapel, Duke University Archives Learn More: Out of the Shadows by Susan E. Tifft, Smithsonian Magazine, February 2005Philadelphia Area Architecture of Horace Trumbauer (Images of America) by Rachel Hildebrandt and the Old York Road Historical Society, 2009American Splendor: The Residential Architecture of Horace Trumbauer by Michael C. Kathrens, rev. 2012Duke University: An Architectural Tour by John M. Bryan, 2000Duke University: An Architectural Tour (The Campus Guide) by Ken Friedlein and John Pearce, 2015Friends of Julian Abele Park, Philadelphia, PA Sources: Penn Biographies, University of Pennsylvania University Archives and Records Center; Julian F. Abele, Architect, Free Library of Philadelphia; Biography and Projects from the American Architects and Buildings database, The Athenaeum of Philadelphia; Dukes Architecture, Office of the University Architect, Duke University; Black U.S. Architect Designed a Bond with Argentina, IIP Digital, Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State; Frank P. Mitchell House, African American Historic Places Database, National Trust for Historic Preservation; History, The Building at http://chapel.duke.edu/history/building, Duke University Chapel. Websites accessed April 3-4, 2014.

Albert Camus and Suicide essays

Albert Camus and Suicide essays Humanity has always been intrigued with death and questioning the morality of deaths. Philosopher Albert Camus is famous for his work with the suicide aspect of death. Suicide is a part of society that many people would like to overlook because it is an uncomfortable subject to describe. Through his works, Albert Camus took on philosophies of death, looking suicide in the eye. Philosopher Albert Camus was born on November 7, 1913 in Mondovi, Algeria. A year later, in 1914, his father died during a World War I battle, leaving his nearly deaf mother to take care of two sons. This poverty struck hardship remains constant throughout Camus life, influencing his literature. In 1940, during wartime, Camus worked in Paris as a reporter for Paris-Soir. It was at this time where he began writing three manuscripts that he called The Absurds. These three writings are considered Camus best philosophical works. It includes The Stranger, The Myth of Sisyphus, and Caligula. The Myth of Sisyphus is a well-crafted short story, with Camus dissecting and refining the short story for five years. The first sentence shows the crafted content of each sentence, There is only one serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide (Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus). In the short story, Sisyphus defies the gods by loving life too much. The gods find the perfect torture for Sisyphus by condemning him to push a heavy rock up at mountain. However, as Sisyphus hopes for success, the rock will always roll back into its initial state. But Sisyphus doesnt let this hopelessness empower him. He discards any illusion that he will complete the task. By doing so, he becomes a hero because he instills the ability of enduring punishment. It is this constant struggle up the mountain that entitles Sisyphus to become a hero. Camus reminds us of ...our absurd freedom and the choices we make in life, especially when f...

Pronouncing the Spanish R

Pronouncing the Spanish R Question: One word in Spanish that I cant seem to get right is aire for air. I hear it from Spanish speakers sounding like EYE-day, but its not a d sound - theres a definite re sound, but it eludes me. Answer: The single r can indeed sound a lot like the English d. (The same isnt true of the Spanish rr sound, which is trilled.) Except at the beginning of words that stand alone (where the r is trilled), a single r is formed (more or less) by hitting the tongue against the front of the palate. It is sometimes said that the Spanish r sounds like the tt in little, so youre hearing correctly. The exact pronunciation varies somewhat with the speaker, the region the person is from, and the placement of the letter in the word. The R for English Speakers What works for some English speakers (even if it may not be technically correct) is to shape the lips something like the sound that is made for the English r, but to make the sound with a single trill or flap of the tongue against the front of the palate. Actually, its probably best not to think English r at all; the sounds of the two languages really are different. And if its any consolation, the sound of the English r is more difficult for native Spanish speakers (and speakers of many other languages) to master than it is for English speakers to master the Spanish r. You can hear the r pronounced by native speakers in our audio lesson on pronouncing the r. Words spoken in that lesson are pero (but), caro (expensive), primo (cousin), tres (three), seà ±or (Mr.) and hablar (to speak). Recommendations From the Community Participants in our forum have discussed pronunciation of the r, especially when it comes after a consonant, as in abra. Heres some of their advice: You can try substituting the English letter d for a single r. For example: Pero (Spanish) Pedo (English). If you say it quickly it begins to take on the character of the Spanish r. I learned this from a friend from Colombia whose name was Miriam. She hated the swallowed r that Americans make when they say her name, so she suggested that they call her Medium. Said quickly, that was much closer to the Spanish pronunciation of Miriam.When you say the word throw you have to put your tongue in almost the same position as you do when you make the Spanish r sound. Try that for positioning your tongue, then just blow real hard and your tongue will vibrate like its supposed to do for those rolling rrs. Once you have the tongue vibrating, make a growling sound like rrrrrrr.If you pronounce the t and d as they are pronounced in Spanish with the tip of the tongue on or near the top of the upper front teeth instead of farther up on the alveolar ridge as we usually do in English, then to get to t he r you only have to flip it up a little. Anyway, you can solace that Spanish doesnt have those impossible consonant combinations that some languages have. (I knew a guy from Africa whose first name was Ngmpu. Try that one!) If you can already make the r sound when surrounded by vowels, then stick in a vowel at first - u works the best. Practice saying abura a bunch of times, gradually emphasizing the u less and less until youre just saying abra.I dont think I have any trouble with r as in abra, or at least no native speaker has ever told me that my pronunciation of it sounds bad. If youve got the r of para or caro down, its exactly the same as that; flap your tongue right after the consonant. In other words, try saying ohtda as though it were an English word very quickly (of course, your tongue should touch the back of your front teeth when you say the t) and you will probably get the word otra right.

Compare and Contrast Rawlsian and Dworkinian account of distributive Essay

Compare and Contrast Rawlsian and Dworkinian account of distributive justice - Essay Example The focus in this methodology of viewing justice is on the outcomes and results of distributions rather than the procedural tools which connect with administrative bodies or the government established in the system. Two prominent thinkers, i.e. Ronald Dworkin and John Rawls have presented their ideas about distributive justice and an understanding of these ideas is important for any student of sociology, philosophy, law and even economics. It would be best to examine the ideas of Rawls first since he presented his ideas before Dworkin. In the simplest of terms, John Rawls distributive justice is based on the idea of alternative distributive justice in which a Difference Principle is called into action. Rawls accepts that equality and equal distribution of resources within any given system is impossible therefore he creates a difference principle under which inequality becomes perfectly acceptable. The Difference Principle allows a society to allocate resources in a way where equality is not needed, but only if the creation of this inequality makes the lower strata of society materially better off than they would have been had there been perfect equality (Rawls, 1993). As a difference to Dworkinian distributive justice, this idea is based on the fact that the level of wealth in an economy is never a fixed constant and it can be changed from one point in time to the other. Rawls suggests that the wealth of a nation can be created by technology, innovation and development and this has been clearly proven by the industrialized nations of the world. Of course this comes with the idea of capitalism and social Darwinism where the most productive people within an economy will rise to the top and create wealth for themselves as well as the economic system they are in. This may lead to the accumulation of wealth at the top of the social order but Rawls does not consider this to be a

Wire Systems in Telecommunications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Wire Systems in Telecommunications - Essay Example He is still using these techniques. Initially, he was bound to serve his purpose through the medium of nature since he opened eye in its lap and there was no other techno logy or resources available for this purpose. Historical Background: Relationship to the Needs of the Society Native Americans, in ancient times, used a distinctive technique for communication called smoke signals. This may be termed as the first and foremost means of signal based communication. In this technique, columns or puffs of smoke were dispatched into the air in different shapes and frequencies on encoding side. On the other decoding side, signals would be perceived as desired by the signaler. These smoke signals cannot be declared or rated precisely a full language, but were typically used as short signals of communication. Some of the standard signals even retain information today. For example, one puff of smoke dispatched into the air was supposed to signal intended viewer’s attention. While, on t he other hand, two puffs meant nothing dangerous and every thing is all right. Contrary to this, three puffs signal hazard, call for aid, or merely some expected trouble. The smoke was produced by putting together green branches or leaves of grass into the fire. In this practice, blankets are used to direct the smoke puffs. Beside this, important events were also discernible by smoke signals. These events constitute war, birth, marriage or death. There were also light and heavy signals in vogue, each meaning variegated things. One meant good event, while the other meant bad news. The popularity or authenticity of this system can be viewed from this fact that this smoke signals methods being the old form of Native American communication, are still used today by the strategic personnel. As far as the mechanism of production and comprehension of these signals was concerned, it was not random. Every thing was calculated and sensitive frequency oriented, though, not as sophisticated and digitalized calculated as contemporary technology. One can consider smoke signals as a visual telegraph. The viewer can see smoke signals over a stretched distance, and decode the smoke to interpret the nature of message. In order to create smoke signals, put a blanket over the fire. Afterwards, include grass and newly born green branches to generate more smoke. To launch a short puff of smoke, raise the cover hurriedly, then put it down again. For long puffs of smoke, intuitively manage to raise the cover for a longer but for tentatively accurate time. Coordinate and manage time and distance ratio with a specific speed to get the target or desired length of the puffs. Variation of puff sends a distinctive message. Smoke signals cannot be asserted as standardized. The users, then using the required code, always conclude the target for communication. In digitalized technology today, to log on means to enter a specific cyber account or to turn our computers on. In the same way, for sm oke signals, the signalers also log on, by adding logs to this fire or smoke. Wire System Communication Advancement in Canada and US During the next decade we will see a change in the way we communicate with machines and the equipment that we use. The user will respond directly to questions that their equipment asks them with the technology having voice recognition of the user's voice. Improved shopping systems will help businesses order what they need while the persons are at home, on the road, or flying to a business venture. Live video will become a wave of the future replacing conventional communications. Some experts believe that virtual reality could take over the video feeds period. With the growth of technology

Management accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 7

Management accounting - Essay Example This is a growing market as evident from the fact that  £ 85 billion is spent annually on UK tourism, especially London. About 50 % of this is by overseas visitors and the rest are by UK residents in day trips and staying away from home (UK-Culture, 2007). The book will be marketed to both the tourists and business visitors alike, as business tourism is also becoming increasingly common. In 2005, business tourism accounted to about 8 million visits to London (UK-Culture, 2007). The shareholders of the company will invest  £ 5,000 for the company. Another  £ 30,000 will be taken as a long term loan from the family with instalment payments starting from the third year with a standard rate of 0 % and in a period of 9 years. A loan of  £ 25,000 from NatWest bank will be availed at an interest rate of 6.4 % APR. The estimated sales for the initial year of operations are about 6,173 units. This amounts to an average sale of 515 units per month in the first year. The tourist industry in London is always active and the company estimates to sell all of the 515 units produced in the month irrespective of the season. The sales volume is presented in Appendix 2. The cash for the sales made in the month are collected within the end of the month (i.e., within a maximum period of 30 days). This way, the company will be able to maintain effective liquidity. The suppliers will be paid in two instalments, 50 % on purchase date and the remaining 50 % after 30 days. The books will be made based on a just in time strategy, thus reducing the inventory to zero. This will enable the company to effectively safe on storage costs as well. A total of 6,173 units will be sold in the first year and there will not be any closing stock in the monthly budget, as all the 525 units manufactured in the month will be sold. The initial inventory will be zero at start

Independent African American Film Producers Research Paper

Independent African American Film Producers - Research Paper Example Independent African American Film Producers Independent film producers are professional producers who make feature films that are mostly produced outside the confines of the system of major studios (Levy 29). In addition to production, as well as distribution, through independent companies, these producers can also distribute and/or produce their films via major studio subsidiaries. These films are also characterized by marketing them as a limited release, although there are times when the marketing campaigns can be done through wide release (Reid 48). Prior to distributing the films, independent film producers will screen their movies at film festivals. This paper will seek to give the biography of three independent African American film producers; Tyler Perry, Spike Lee, and Ivan Dixon. Biography of Tyler Perry Born in New Orleans on 13 September 1969, Tyler Perry had a difficult childhood. He has had to forge his career in the entertainment industry, in which he has made various successful plays, films, and even written books that have ended up on the best-sellers list. According to him, his childhood was difficult in a family with three other siblings where his early life was punctuated by corporal punishment by his father (Uschan 30). He once attempted to kill himself to escape what he fathomed to be a difficult life. In an attempt to forge a life away from his father, the man born Emmitt Perry Jr. changed his name to Tyler and dropped out of high school, although he did go on to earn a GED general equivalent later on in his life. He only discovered his passion after trying his hand at several unfulfilling employment opportunities. Watching Oprah Winfrey on television, he was inspired by an independent filmmaker’s comments on the show about how personal breakthroughs could be brought about by difficult experiences (Uschan 31). Starting by writing a series of letters that he addressed to himself, Perry used his experiences to create his first musical I Know I Have Been Changed. While touching on the subject of his abuse as a child, Perry also touched on forgiveness, an aspect of his films that has been ever-present, reflecting the seriousness he takes his faith as a Christian (Uschan 31). His first showing of the musical in 1992 only drew an audience of 30 people. Perry was disappointed but determined and took odd jobs to fund h is reworking of the project. Although he staged his show in various American cities, he was still not successful and had to live in his car for a while. Perry finally got his breakthrough in 1998 with the musical I Know I Have Been Changed, for which rented the Atlanta franchise of House of Blues. Soon he began to draw sell out crowds, forcing the musical to be moved to a theater with more sitting space (Uschan 36). He followed up this musical with an adaptation of Woman Thou Art Loosed, a book by Televangelist T.D. Jakes, which also proved popular with audiences, particularly African Americans. However, it was his next project, I Can Do Bad All By Myself that brought him the success he had been craving and introduced Madea, his most famous character. He based the character of Madea on mature women in his life, including his mother, choosing to play the character by wearing a drag and changing his voice. Madea made her screen debut in Diary of a Mad Black Woman in 2001 and making su bsequent popular appearances in Madea’s Class Reunion and Madea’s Family Reunion, for which Perry toured extensively around the country in support of his films (Uschan 36). Diary of a Mad Black Woman proved a hit at the box office, starring Steve Harris and Kimberly Elise as an adulterous husband, and scorned wife respectively. Perry himself made an

Managing Multinational Operations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing Multinational Operations - Essay Example From this perspective, China now stands as an investment heaven for foreign investors due to several factors, such as cheap labor, incentives for multinational companies, and relaxation in tax policies that have been few factors from the list. Experts have indicated that as China was successful in surpassing the success rate of USA in terms of FDI in the year 2002, there is a huge possibility that it may become the largest economy by the year 2020 that now seems quite possible (Ching, 2008). After becoming member of the WTO, there has been greater liberty in the sectors of industry and services, and decrease in customs duty has been another major factor of establishment of new foreign firms in China. In particular, studies have indicated that multinational companies especially in the sectors of â€Å"distribution, logistics, financial services, and telecommunications† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008) have benefited significantly from such liberalization. Besides, analysis has sh own that there has been introduction of various policies by the Chinese government to give privilege to foreign investors and multinational companies, in order to promote foreign investment in the country and that will be fruitful for any multinational firm that will be entering in China to establish business. A major step has been the implementation of socialist market economy in China that has created an encouraging environment for new investments. Moreover, it is very imperative for a country to be constant in its tax policies and regulations that has been the case of China, consequently, resulting in positive arena for multinational firms to operate in the country. However, while planning to establish business in China, one should have an understanding that few strategies enjoy greater relaxation and liberalization, such as the businesses that â€Å"bring in advanced technology, management expertise and high-caliber talent† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008). Thus, if Acme is planning to penetrate in the Chinese market, it will have to make efforts to focus on the quality while ensuring advance technologies in its different processes and procedures. Furthermore, Chinese government promotes multinational firms and foreign investors that facilitate the process of â€Å"ecological construction, environmental protection, and conservation, and the more efficient use of resources and energy† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008). Besides such opportunities for multinational firms, there still exist few hurdles; however, the Chinese government has been endeavoring to deal with the issues to promote more firms in the Chinese market. For instance, firms that bring in foreign investment in China enjoy liberalization and relaxation in the processes of â€Å"foreign exchange balancing, and raw materials sourcing† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008) that allow the firms to run the business more effectively in the country. Additionally, in the past, firms had this limitation of using local market for materials; however, now, they enjoy the relaxation of giving priority to either local market or the international market while buying raw materials and fuels. On the other hand, there are few restrictions for multinational firms and foreign investors in the process of acquiring approval on capital contributions and participation in some particular sectors of the Chinese marke

HLTH 252 DB1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HLTH 252 DB1 - Essay Example In addition, most of the Americans have the believe that, legal drugs are less addictive and safer as compared to illicit drugs that translate to extensive use of such drugs regardless of their side effects (Perry, 2013). The American society promotes extensive use of drugs in many ways. First, various reality shows as well as extensive advertisements of such drugs give the viewers an impression that use of such drugs is safe. Moreover, peer pressure is another factor that encourages the youth in engaging into drug abuse. For example, there is extensive use of drugs in various high school parties across the country regardless of the strict regulation by the government. Most of the legal drugs such as alcohol, cigarettes and the prescription drugs are easily available in the streets making it easy for majority of the Americans to access them. Availability of different social classes in the society enhances extensive use of drugs since most of the individuals in the society tend to abuse drugs in order to fit in such social groups (Brick, 2013) Biological theory of addition dictates that, continued use of a given substance by the individual results in addition. The theory explains that, introducing a given substance in the body results in overreliance, which limits their chances of withdrawal. On the other hand, sociological theory explains addition based on social influence. For example, the extensive use of drugs by an individual in order to fit in certain groups in the society results in addition. Psychological theory expounds addition based on the individual’s anxiety, as a result, of the use of the drug. The theory recognizes external and the internal factors in addition to emotional experiences that contributes to addiction (Brick, 2013). The psychological theory argues that, individuals result to drug abuse in order to adapt to particular needs as well as external pressures. The best theory that explains drug abuse is

Managing Multinational Operations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing Multinational Operations - Essay Example From this perspective, China now stands as an investment heaven for foreign investors due to several factors, such as cheap labor, incentives for multinational companies, and relaxation in tax policies that have been few factors from the list. Experts have indicated that as China was successful in surpassing the success rate of USA in terms of FDI in the year 2002, there is a huge possibility that it may become the largest economy by the year 2020 that now seems quite possible (Ching, 2008). After becoming member of the WTO, there has been greater liberty in the sectors of industry and services, and decrease in customs duty has been another major factor of establishment of new foreign firms in China. In particular, studies have indicated that multinational companies especially in the sectors of â€Å"distribution, logistics, financial services, and telecommunications† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008) have benefited significantly from such liberalization. Besides, analysis has sh own that there has been introduction of various policies by the Chinese government to give privilege to foreign investors and multinational companies, in order to promote foreign investment in the country and that will be fruitful for any multinational firm that will be entering in China to establish business. A major step has been the implementation of socialist market economy in China that has created an encouraging environment for new investments. Moreover, it is very imperative for a country to be constant in its tax policies and regulations that has been the case of China, consequently, resulting in positive arena for multinational firms to operate in the country. However, while planning to establish business in China, one should have an understanding that few strategies enjoy greater relaxation and liberalization, such as the businesses that â€Å"bring in advanced technology, management expertise and high-caliber talent† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008). Thus, if Acme is planning to penetrate in the Chinese market, it will have to make efforts to focus on the quality while ensuring advance technologies in its different processes and procedures. Furthermore, Chinese government promotes multinational firms and foreign investors that facilitate the process of â€Å"ecological construction, environmental protection, and conservation, and the more efficient use of resources and energy† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008). Besides such opportunities for multinational firms, there still exist few hurdles; however, the Chinese government has been endeavoring to deal with the issues to promote more firms in the Chinese market. For instance, firms that bring in foreign investment in China enjoy liberalization and relaxation in the processes of â€Å"foreign exchange balancing, and raw materials sourcing† (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2008) that allow the firms to run the business more effectively in the country. Additionally, in the past, firms had this limitation of using local market for materials; however, now, they enjoy the relaxation of giving priority to either local market or the international market while buying raw materials and fuels. On the other hand, there are few restrictions for multinational firms and foreign investors in the process of acquiring approval on capital contributions and participation in some particular sectors of the Chinese marke

Fashion Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Fashion Media - Essay Example The paper "Fashion Media" concerns the fashion and media. In both active and passive audience, theorists have come up to try and bring up their ideas related to these ends in relation to the social reality. Therefore, the key issues are how individual audiences cognitive of self and reality, and more so the cognitive process by which an individual receives and interprets media content and form. To achieve the answer to this question, the active audience are very vital members used in different theories, beliefs and conceits. According to different scholars, audience activity is a very important component in the study of the impact of mass media to the universe, and essential to the utilization and gratification approach. This gives a wide range of meanings termed as both merits and demerits of the construct. In this regard, these different definitions are such that it can be said to be both cognitive and socio-structural, normative and objective, socially variable and innate. An acti vity has been further defined by different scholars to exist preceding to media utilization, through media use and following media use. These different studies have given birth to complex and multi-dimensional constructs. The term audience activity is defined differently in relation to different terms. First is in relation to selectivity. In this, audience activity is depicted as the directing process of the media, program and content selection. In literature gratification, this term is used to represent selective disclosure.

Identify the Individual at Risk of Skin Breakdown and Undertake the Appropriate Risk Assessment Essay Example for Free

Identify the Individual at Risk of Skin Breakdown and Undertake the Appropriate Risk Assessment Essay Upon arriving at the care home, I shut the door behind me, clocked in using my time card and signed the staff log book which is a requirement of the fire safety policy. Prior to starting my shift, I attended the hand over held in the staff office with closed doors to maintain confidentiality and privacy of the residents. The hand over gives me important changes in the residents health and social care needs, requirements and procedures that need implementing during the shift. One of the residents I usually care for is Mrs H who has just come back from a hospital admission. According to her care plan Mrs H was diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Kidney Disease Stage 4 which are predisposing factors for pressure sores. She is bed bound, cannot weight bear and had just undergone Open Reduction and Internal Fixation (ORIF) for fracture on her left tibia fibula which left her immobilised. She is also incontinent of urine and faeces which are all predisposing factors to sore development. As one of her primary carer, I was assigned to carry out a risk assessment for skin breakdown with the use of the Waterlow Scale. I knocked on Mrs Hs room before entering as a sign of respect for her privacy and greeted her good morning. I asked how she is and she smiled which means she is fine as she has difficulty speaking. I asked her if she would like to have her bed bath and she said yes please. I informed her that I also need to carry out a risk assessment for skin breakdown to identify if she is at risk of developing a pressure sore. I explained the procedures that she will expect, the reasons behind these and I asked for her permission to carry on. She obliged by softly saying ok in a very low voice. Before starting the assessment, I gathered all the things that I need. I observed standard precautions for infection control by washing my hands with soap and water and drying them with disposable paper towels. I wore a disposable plastic apron and donned a pair of disposable gloves to prevent the spread and transfer of infection from one person to another. With the help of my colleague, I gently and carefully took off Mrs Hs night dress informing her every step that I make to make her aware and to encourage her cooperation. I kept it in yellow laundry bag as per organisational policy on infection control and prevention. I covered her body with bath towels to maintain her privacy and keep her warm. I washed her face and body with the use of disposable Mediwipes with soap and warm water. I dried her up using the towel to keep her from freezing. I took off her nappy pad and washed her private front part properly and dried her afterwards. Then I informed Mrs H that I need to turn her on her side so that I can wash and examine her back. With coordinated movements from my colleague, we gently and carefully turned her on her side, taking special care not to put any undue pressure on her bad leg to prevent any further injury. I examined her back side taking note of pressure points or bony prominences on her shoulders, sacrum, elbows, ankles and heels. Her skin on her shoulders, spine, elbows and heels look fine but there is a redness on her sacral area which feels hotter than other areas of her skin. I asked Mrs H if she feels any pain in her bottom and she said yes in a very low voice. On her left heel is an abrasion which she developed while she was in the hospital. I washed her back and her bottom gently and dried them up properly as excess moisture can aggravate her skin condition. I put her soiled nappy pad in a plastic bag to be disposed of in the clinical waste bag. I applied aqueous creme on her skin especially on bony prominences to prevent drying. I applied sudocrem on her sacral area to soothe and to protect and help heal her skin. I put on a clean nappy pad on her, put on clean clothes and positioned her on her right side to relieve the pressure on her sacral area, using cushions to make her comfortable. The nurse-in-charge came inside the room to check on her left heel wound and I asked her how to clean it and what dressing should I use for it. She said I can clean it with sterile water and sterile gauze, dry it up and apply Versiva dressing for protection as advised by the tissue viability nurse. I disposed of my gloves and donned on a clean pair. I washed Mrs H wound on her heel with sterile water and sterile gauze, dried it up and applied Versiva dressing. I put on a pressure relief cushion on her left foot to relieve pressure, kept it supported and in a comfortable position. I thanked Mrs H for her cooperation during the procedure. I informed her about the condition of her skin and reassured her that it is well taken care of. I disposed of my apron, gloves and soiled dressings in the plastic bag, tied it and disposed it in a clinical waste bag. I washed my hands with soap and water again and dried it up to prevent the spread of infection.

Theories of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Theories of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) This assignment tries to discuss various theories concerning foreign direct investment and give the statement as to whether the theories provide a successful explanation of the main determinants of such activity In real sense the main theories of FDI does not provide successful explanation of the main determinants for such activity, as explained by Dunning and Lundan (2008:81) Multinational Enterprises and Global Economy 2nd Edition. Definition of foreign direct investment According to Graham and Spaulding (website information) direct foreign investment in its classical definition is defined as the company from one country making physical investment into building a factory to another country. Foreign direct investment (FDI) plays an extraordinary and growing role in global business. It can provides a firm with new markets and marketing channels, cheaper production facilities, access to knew technology, products, skills and financing. For a host country or the foreign firm which receives the investment, it can provide a strong impetus to economic development. The direct investment in building, machinery and equipment is in contrast with making a portfolio investment, which is considered an indirect investment. In recent years, given rapid growth and change in global investment patterns, the definition has been broadened to include the acquisition of lasting management interest in a company or enterprise outside the investing firms home country. As such, it may take many forms, such as a direct acquisition of a foreign firm, construction of a facility, or investment in a joint venture or strategy alliance with a local firm with attendant input of technology, growing, licensing of Ewe-Ghee Lim (web information) The paper tells about two aspects of direct foreign investment (FDI): its correlation with economic growth and its determinants. The first part focuses on positive spillovers from FDI while the second deals with the determinants of FDI. The paper finds that while substantial support exists for positive spillovers from FDI, there is no consensus on causality. On determinants, the paper finds that market size, infrastructure quality, political/economic stability, and free trade zones are important for FDI, while results are mixed regarding the importance of fiscal incentives, the business/investment climate, labour costs, and openness. Dunning (1993:3), explain that there is less disagreement about FDI THEORIES globalisation as a process of towards the widening of the extent and form of cross-border transactions; and the deepening of the economic interdependence between the actions of globalising entities located in other countries. The FDI theories explain the reason why FDI occurs and the determinants of FDI. The theories have traditionally emphasises market imperfection (Hymer, 1960; Kindlebeger, 1969) and firm specific advantages or ownership advantages derived from the ownership of intangible assets such as technologies, management skills, and organisational capabilities (Caves, 1971). Hymers market imperfections theories suggested that a firm may have certain advantage that may be generated from the fields of technology, management or marketing A. L Calvet (1981:43-59) Journal of International Business Study (hhtp://teaching.ust.hk/ Accessed on 07.11.2009. He assert that Kindleberger provided the first comprehensive survey of the various theories of foreign direct investment along with the lines expressed by Hymer. He approached the question of direct investment from the standpoint of the perfectly competitive model of neoclassical economics by asserting that in a world of pure competition direct investment could not exist. Kindleberger (1969, p13) Indeed, when all markets operate efficiently, when there are no external economies of production or marketing, when information is costless and there are no barriers to trade or competition, International trade is the only possible form of international involvement. Logically, it follows that is the departures from the model of perfect competition that must provide the rationale for foreign direct investment. The first deviation had been noted by Hymer (1960/1976), who postulated that local firms have better information about the economic environment in their country than do foreign companies. According to his argument, two conditions have to be fulfilled to explain the existence of direct investment: (1) foreign firms must possess a countervailing advantage over the local firms to make such investment viable, and (2) the market for the sale of this advantage must be imperfect. It was, thus, a natural step for Kindleberger later to suggest that market imperfections were the reason for the existence of foreign direct investment. Specifically, he came up with the following taxonomy: Imperfections in goods markets, imperfections in factors market, scale economies and government imposed disruptions. This classification may be called the market paradigm; To encompass new developments in the field of determinants of foreign investment, a somewhat different taxonomy from that of Kindleberger was proposed to distinguish among four classes: (1) market disequilibrium hypotheses, (2) government-impose distortions, (3) market structure imperfections, and (4) market failure imperfections. The common feature found in all the hypotheses in group (1) will be the transitory nature of foreign direct investment. FDI is an equilibrating force among segmented markets which eventually comes to an end when equilibrium is re-established; that is when rates of return are equalized among countries. The unifying characteristic in group (2) will be the role played by either host or home governments in providing the incentive to invest abroad. Group (3) will include theories in which the behaviour of firms deviates from that assumed under perfect competition, through their ability to influence market prices. Finally, in group (4) will be classified theories which depart from the technical assumptions behind the model of perfect markets; that is, the assumptions about production techniques and commodity properties. This last category will deal basically with those phenomena which lead to market failure or, cases where the decentralizing efficiency of that regime of signals, rules and build in sanctions which defines a price market system will fail. (Bator 1958, p. 352) Market disequilibrium hypotheses: The notion of a perfect economy and perfect competition requires the assumption that prices everywhere are adjusted to bring supply and demand into equilibrium. It may well be that because of segmentation in world markets rates of return are not equalized internationally. In a disequilibrium context flows of FDI would take place until markets return to stability. Instances of disequilibrium conditions that provide incentives to invest abroad are those which apply to factor markets and foreign exchange markets. Ragazzi (1973:491) State that Currency overvaluation is perhaps the most salient example of these disequilibrium hypotheses. A currency may be defined as overvalued when at the prevailing rate of exchange production costs for tradable goods in the country are, on the average, higher than in other countries. Such an occurrence creates opportunities for profit-making by holding assets in undervalued currencies with the expectation that, once the equilibrium in the foreign exchange market is re-established, capital gains will be realized. In meantime, there is an incentive to locate production of internationally traded commodities in countries with undervalued currencies and to purchase income producing assets with overvalued money. The important point is that, once exchange rates return to equilibrium, the flow of FDI should stop. Even more foreign investors should sell their foreign assets, pocket the capital gains, and return to domestic operations. Foreign direct investment may be attracted toward areas where the average rates of profit are higher. This is basically the capital markets disequilibrium hypotheses. It implies that, for a given level of risk, rates of return on assets are not equalized internationally by portfolio capital flows, due to inefficiencies in securities markets-such as, thinness or luck of disclosure. According to Piggott and Cook (1999:260-261) International Business Economics: A European Perspective 2nd Edition It is difficult to fit into one neat theory because of the problem of definition; secondly any theory of FDI is almost inevitably a theory of MNCs. as well, and thus inseparable from the theory of the firm. Thirdly, the nature of FDI makes it a multidimensional subject within the sphere of economics as well as an interdisciplinary one. It involves the theory of the firm, distribution theory, capital theory, trade theory and international finance as well as the discipline of sociology and politics. It is therefore not possible to identify any single theory of FDI due to many explanations of FDI. Also not easy to classify these explanations into distinct and neat groups, due to substantial overlapping between some of the explanations. They grouped the theories into three categories. 1).Traditional theories 2).Modern theories and 3).Radical theories Traditional theories are based on neo-classical economic and explain FDI in terms of location-specific advantages. Morden theories emphasise the fact that product and factor markets are imperfect both domestically and internationally and that considerable transactional costs are involved in market solutions. Also they acknowledge that managerial and organisational functions play an important role in undertaking FDI. The radical theories, these take a more critical view of Multinational National Corporation (MNCs). Let 1st examine the ownership, Location and Internalisation advantages, sometimes referred as paradigm of OLI. To explain the activity of MNCs there is three different types of advantages which is important. 1).Ownership-specific advantages (OSA) These refer to certain types of knowledge and privileges which a firm possesses and are not available to its competitor. These arise due to the imperfections in commodity and factor market. Imperfections in commodity markets include product differentiation, collusion, and special marketing skills, and in factor markets appear in the form of special managerial skills, differences in access to capital market, and technology protected by patents. Imperfect market may also arise from the existence of internal or external economies of scale or from government policies regarding taxes, interest rates and exchange rates. The market imperfection gives rise to certain ownership-specific advantages, grouped under the following headings: Technical advantages-include holding production secrets such as patents, or unavailable technology or management-organisational techniques. Industrial organisation-relates to the advantages arising from operating in an oligopolistic market such as those associated with joint RD and economies of scale. Financial and monetary advantages-includes preferential access to capital markets so as to obtain cheaper capital. Access to raw materials-if a firm gains privileged access to raw materials or minerals then this becomes an ownership-specific advantage 2).Location-specific advantages (LSA)-This refer to certain advantages which the firm has because it locates its production activities in a particular area: a) .Access to raw materials or minerals this normally represents an LSA. This advantage, however, applies to all the firms established in the locality and is not sufficient to explain FDI in itself pg 261 b). Imperfections in international labour markets-these create real wage-cost differentials which provide an incentive for the MNC to shift production to locations where labour costs are low. Example electronics component firms using South East Asian locations for assembly production. c). Trade barriers-These provide an incentive for MNCs to set up production in Europe to avoid CET. Similarly, high Canadian tariff barriers have been used in the past to attract US direct investment. c). Government policies-such as taxation and interest rate policies can influence the location of FDI. Internalisation-specific advantages (ISA) occur when international market imperfections make market solution too costly. This means the market is too costly or inefficient to undertake certain types of transactions, so whenever transactions can be organised and carried out more cheaply within the firm than thorough the market they will be internalised and undertaken by the firm itself. The benefits of internalisation are as follows:- a). the advantages of vertical integration cover such things as exploitation of market power through price discrimination and avoidance of government intervention by devices such as transfer pricing. b). the importance of intermediate products for research-intensive activity: the firm appropriates the returns on its investment in the production of new technology by internalising technology. c). the internalisation is not entirely costless. It creates communication, co-ordination and control problems. There is also the cost of acquiring local knowledge. FDI theories 1). Traditional theory Capital arbitrage theory The theory states that. Direct investment flows from countries where profitability is low to countries where profitability is high. It means therefore that capital is mobile both nationally and internationally. But sometimes implication is that countries with abundant capital should export and countries with less capital should import. If there was a link between the long-term interest rate and return on capital, portfolio investment and FDI should be moving in the same direction. International trade theory-the country will specialise in production of, and export those commodities which make intensive use of the countrys relatively abundant factor. 2). Modern theory Product-cycle theory New products appear first in the most advanced economy in respond to demand conditions. The maturing product stage is described by standardisation of the product, increased economies of scale, high demand and low price The standardised product stage is reached when the commodity is sold entirely on price basis. The internalisation theories of FDI The theory explain that why the cross-border transactions of intermediate products are organised by hierarchies rather than determined by market forces. The theory of appropriability. The theory explains why there is a strong presence of high-technology industries among MNCs 3).The electric theory of FDI The theory tries to offer a general framework for determining the extent and pattern of both foreign-owned production undertaken by a countrys own enterprises, and that of domestic production owned or controlled by foreign firm. Dunning and Lundan(2008) Robock and Simmonds (1989:48) International Business and Multinational Enterprises 4th Ed Assert that, the electric theory of international production enlarges the theoretical framework by including both home-country and host-country characteristics as international explanatory factors. It argues that the extent, form, and patterns of international production are determined by the configuration of three sets of advantages as perceived by the enterprises. First Ownership (O) advantage 2nd Location (L) and 3rd Internalization (I) advantage in order for the firm to transfer its ownership advantages across national boundary Diamond Porter Theory Daniels, Radebaugh and Sullivan (2009:287) 12th Edition. International Business: Environment and Operations: Pearson International Edition This is the theory which shows four conditions which is important for competitive superiority: demand conditions; factor conditions; related and supporting conditions and the firm strategy, structure and rivalry. Demand conditions whereby the company start up production at near the observed market for example an Italian ceramic tile industry after World War II: At that time there were post-war housing boom and consumers wanted cool floors because the climate was hot. Another factor is factor conditions which recall natural advantage within absolute advantage theory and the factor-proportions theory Conclusion Theories of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Theories of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) This report has discussed different theoretical framework of FDI that takes place. These theories briefly explain why firms go to trouble when establishing or acquiring abroad. Theories that use on this report are Hymers contributions, product life-cycle theory, caves theory, internalisation theory, the eclectic paradigm, strategic motivations of foreign direct investment and investment path development (IDP) theory. This report also evaluates Honda automotive as an example on how they survive and compete in the competitive international markets nowadays with using FDI models, statistics and theories. Based on these analyses, I feel that FDI takes an important role to both foreign and host countries and also impact firm behaviour or effects on host economies. Introduction This report will discuss Foreign Direct Investment theories and evaluate the FDI of a leading player industry that chosen, Toyota, Japan. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the name given to process where a firm from a country provides capital to an existing or newly-created firm in another country (Jones, 2006 #1). For example, a foreign firm may decide to set-up production in the UK and by so doing will engaging in the process known as FDI. Firms locating production in more than one country are often referred to as multinational enterprises (MNEs). Dunning (1981) notes there are two main problems with viewing FDI. First, FDI is more than just the transfer of capital, since just as importantly it involves the transfer of technology, management and organizational skills. Second, the resources are transferred within the firm rather than between two independent parties in the market place, as is the case with capital (Jones, 2006 #1). These factors give FDI own a unique key theories an d often cited as Hymer (1960) international operations of national firms; Vernons (1966) product life-cycle theory; Caves (1971) horizontal and vertical theories; Buckley and Casson (1976) Internalization theory; Dunning (1977) eclectic theory; Graham (1978) strategic behavior of firms and John Dunning (1981) investment development path (IDP) theory. This report will begin by examining the Hymer (1960) theory. (Keywords: Foreign Direct Investment, FDI, theory, Japan FDI, Honda) Literature Review 1.1 Hymer (1960) international operations of national firms Hymers (1960), who saw flaws in the prevailing view that direct investments and portfolio were synonymous with one another. Hymer noted that direct investment was mainly performed by firms in manufacturing, whereas there was a predominance of financial organisations involved in portfolio investment (Jones, 2006 #1). Hymer was also explained why direct investments across various countries (Kogut, 1998 #2). Hymer (1960) expressed his dissatisfaction with the theory of indirect (or portfolio) capital transfers to explain the foreign value-added activities of firms (Dunning, 2008 #3). In particular, he identified three reasons for his discontent. The first was that once uncertainty and risk, the cost of acquiring information and volatile exchange rates and making transactions were incorporated into classical portfolio theory, many predictions, for example, with respect to the cross-border movements of money capital in response to interest rate changes, became invalidated. This was becaus e such market imperfections modified the behavioural parameters affecting performance of firms and the conduct and, in particular, strategy in servicing foreign markets (Dunning, 2008 #3). Second, Hymer stated that FDI involved the transfer of a package of resource (i.e technology, entrepreneurship, management skills, and so on), and not just finance capital which portfolio theories such as Iversen (1935) had sought to explain. The third and perhaps most fundamental characteristic of FDI was that it involved no change in the ownership of resources or rights transferred, whereas indirect investment, which was transacted through the market, did necessitate such a change. In consequences, the organisational modality of both the transaction of the resources, for example, intermediate products, and the value-added activities linked by these transactions was different. Moreover, Hymers theory of FDI draws its influence from Bains (1956) barriers to entry model of industrial economics (Tee ce, 1985). Hymer begins by noting that there are barriers to entry for a firm wanting to set-up production abroad. These are in the form of uncertainty, risk, and host-country nationalism (Kogut, 1998 #2). Uncertainty gives rise to costs in overcoming informational disadvantages associated with unfamiliarity with local customs. Each country has its own languages, legal system, economy and government, which place firms from outside of the country at a disadvantage compared to firms that are naturally resident to the country. The second barrier is nationalistic discrimination by host countries, which may occur by the government with a protectionist agenda, or by consumers of the host country who prefer to purchase goods from own national firms for reasons of patriotic or loyalty tendencies. The final barrier manifests itself as an exchange rate risk (Kogut, 1998 #2). As the firm has to pay a dividend to its shareholders in the home country it has to repatriate the profits back to its own currency. Given these barriers to international productions, why do firms engage in foreign direct investment? According to Hymer there are two reasons, whether of which could apply, and both of which are expected to increase its profits (Kogut, 1998 #2). First, the firm removes competition from within the industry, by taking-over or by merging with firms in other countries. Second, the firm has advantages over other firms operating in a foreign country. Examples of the latter are the ability of the firm to acquire factors of production at a lower cost, the use of better distributional facilities, the ownership of knowledge not known to its rivals or a differentiated product that is now known in the other country. Both reasons stress the importance of market imperfections (Dunning and Rugman, 1985), and underlying these the investor has direct control of the investment. Overall, these reasons are not sufficient for a firm to engage in direct foreign investment, as what is necessary is that it must enter the foreign market in order to fully appropriate the profits, for example, a firm could license its product to a firm in the foreign country, so that it need not directly invest in the market. However, there are problems with licensing the product. These include the failure to reach an agreement with the licensing firm over the levels of output or prices, or the costs involved in the monitoring an agreement made between the firms. 1.2 Product Life-Cycle Theory Vernon (1966), argued that the decision to locate production is not made by standard factor-cost or labour-cost analysis, but by a more complicated process (Kogut, 1998 #2, p.29). The product cycle model was introduced in the 1960s to explain market-seeking production by firms of a particular ownership or nationality (Dunning, 2008 #3). On the other hand, the product cycle was the first dynamic interpretation of the determinants of, and relationship between, international trade and foreign production (Dunning, 1996 #5). It also introduced some novel hypotheses regarding demand stimuli, technology leads and lags, and information and communication costs, which have subsequently proved useful tools in the study of foreign production and exchange (Dunning, 1996 #5). According to Vernon, a product has a life cycle that has three main stages. These stages are important as they have implications for the international location of a product as follows. Stage One: Product development process. In other words, the nature of the product that the firm is making is not standardised (Kogut, 1998 #2). Stage Two: Maturing product. This means that the need for the product to be situated near to its market declines, which allows for economies of scale. These impact on the locational decision of the firm, especially as the demand for the product is likely to grow in other countries, and the firm will have to decide whether it is worth setting up production abroad. Furthermore, this could even mean that the home country experiences exports back to it from the foreign plant. Stage Three: Standardised product. This is an extension to the maturing product stage, where the standardisation of the product has reached its zenith, and a final framework of the product has been found (Kogut, 1998 #2). 1.3 Caves Theory Caves (1971), expanded upon Hymers theory of direct investment, and placed it firmly in the context of industrial organisation theory (Jones, 2006 #1). The importance of Caves work is that this theory will linked Hymers theory of international production to the then current theories of industrial organisation on horizontal and vertical integration. Caves identify between firms that engage in horizontal FDI and those that undertake vertical FDI (Dunning, 2008 #3). Horizontal FDI takes place when a firm enters into its own product market within a foreign country, whereas vertical FDI happens when a firm enters into the product market at a different stage of production (Jones, 2006 #1). 1.4 Internalisation Theory Coase (1937), examines the role that transaction costs play in the formation of organisations known as internalisation theory (Jones, 2006 #1). In brief, Coase was concerned with why firms exist and why not all transactions in a n economy occur in the market. Coase also answered this in terms of the transactions costs involved in using the market, where this is the cost of searching and determining the market price, or, once the price is found, the cost of negotiation, signing and enforcement of contracts between the parties involved in the transaction. The process of internalisation is developed to explain international production and FDI, and one of the leading proponents is Buckley and Casson (1976). They present the MNE as essentially an extension of the multi-plant firm (Dunning, 2008 #3). Bucley and Casson note that the operations of firm, especially large firms, take the form not only of producing services and goods, but activities such as marketing, training, development and research, management techniques and involvement with financial markets. These activities are interdependent and are connected by intermediate products, taking the form of either knowledge or material products, and expertise. A key intermediate product in the internalisation theory of FDI is knowledge. One reason is that knowledge takes a considerable period of time to generate, for example through development and research, but is highly risky, so that futures markets do not exist. Sellers of markets may be unwilling to disclose information, which has uncertain value to the buyer, causing market fail. Further, sellers and buyers of knowledge can often hold a degree of market power, which leads to a bilateral concentration of power (Williamson, 1979), and uncertain outcomes (Dunning, 2008 #3). These problems indicate the severe difficulties in licensing and contracting where information is crucial. In regards to internationalisation, the public good property of knowledge means it is easily transmitted within the firm, regardless of whether it is inside or across national boundaries. This creates internal markets across national boundaries, and as Buckley and Casson state, as firms search for and exploit knowledge to their maximum potential they do so in numerous locations, with this taking place on an international scale, leading to a network of plants on a world-wide basis (Jones, 2006 #1, p.45). The internalisation theories of FDI played an important role in advancing and developing the theory of FDI in the 1970s and have remained popular since that time (Dunning, 2008 #3). 1.5 The Eclectic Paradigm (Please refer to table 2.1 and 2.2 in reading this section) Reflecting upon the history of the theory of FDI, Dunning (1977) noted that it was very much couched in terms of either the structural market failure hypothesis of Hymer and Caves or the internalisation approach of Buckley and Casson (Dunning, 1996 #5). Dunning provided an eclectic response to these by bringing the competing theories together to form a single theory, or paradigm as it is more often referred. The basic premise of Dunnings paradigm is that it links together Hymers ownership advantages with the internalisation school, and at the same time adds a locational dimension to the theory, which at the time had not been fully explored (Jones, 2006 #1). Further, Dunning does manage to introduce some new considerations, such as the impact that different country and industry characteristics have on each of the ownership, locational and internalisation advantages of FD (Jones, 2006 #1). The eclectic paradigm of FDI states that a firm will directly invest in a foreign country only if it fulfils three conditions. First, the firm must possess an ownership-specific asset, which gives it an advantage over other firms and which are exclusive to the firm. Second, it must internalise these assets within the firm rather than through contracting or licensing. Third, there must be an advantage in setting-up production in a particular foreign country rather than relying on exports (Blomstrom, 2000 #8). Different types of ownership (O), locational (L) and internalisation (I) factors are given in Table 1 (collectively known as OLI) (Jones, 2006 #1). Internalisation advantages are the ways that a firm maximises the gains from their ownership advantages to avoid or overcome market imperfections (Dunning, 1996 #5). Internalisation-specific advantages results in the process of production becoming internal to the firm. Reasons for internalisation include the avoidance of transaction costs, the protection of the good, market and finance, avoidance of tariffs and the ability to capture economies of scale from production (Dunning, 2008 #3). Moreover, not all of the OLI conditions for FDI will be evenly spread across countries, and therefore each condition will be determined by the factors that are specific to individual countries (Dunning, 1996 #5). Links between the OLI advantages and the country-specific characteristics are summarised in Table 2. For example, the ownership-specific advantage of firm size is likely to be influenced by market size in the firms home country (Dunning, 1996 #5). This is because the larger the market is, the more likely will a firm be able to gain ownership-specific advantages in the form of economies of scale. In terms of location-specific factors, labour costs will vary across developed and developing countries, while transport costs are determined by the distance between the host and home countries. Finally, country-specific factors are likely to affect the degree to which firms internalise their advantages. 1.6 Strategic Motivations of Foreign Direct Investment Despite the advances made by the eclectic approach to FDI, the theory has been criticised for ignoring another aspect of FDI theory. Knickerbocker (1973), and then advanced by Graham (1978, 1998). The distinguished feature of the strategic approach to FDI is that is believes that an initial inflow of FDI into a country will produce a reaction form the local producers in that country, so that FDI is a dynamic process. The process from the domestic producers can either be aggressive or defensive in nature. An aggressive response would be a price war or entry into the foreign firms home market while a defensive response would be an acquisition or merger of other domestic producers to reinforce market power (Dunning, 1996 #5). 1.7 Investment Development Path Theory John Dunnings investment development path (IDP) theory (1981) and its latest version (Dunning an Narula 1994) are implicitly built on the notion that the global economy is necessarily hierarchical in terms of the various stages of economic development in which its diverse constituent nations are situated. The IDP essentially traces out the net cross-border flows of industrial knowledge, the flows that are internalised in foreign direct investment (FDI) and that restructure and upgrade the global economy, although there is also the non-equity type of knowledge transfer such as licensing, turn-key operations, and the like. In this way, the IDP can thus be view as a cross-border learning curve exhibited by a nation that successfully move up the stages of development by acquiring industrial knowledge from its more advanced neighbours. A move from the U-shaped (i.e negative NOI) portion to the wiggle section of the IDP indicates an equilibration in knowledge dissemination (Dunning, 1996 # 5, p.143) and that is, a narrowing of the industrial technology gap between the advanced and the catching-up countries. Thus, IDP curve conceptualised by Dunning is an idealised pattern based on free-market exchanged of knowledge among countries (Dunning, 1996 #5). Japan Automotive Industry 2.1 Components-intensive assembly-based manufacturing and FDI (first, trade-conflict-skirting, but later rationalising type) Automobiles and auto-parts had long been targeted by the Japanese government as one of the most promising industries in which both higher technological progress and productivity were possible and whose products were highly income elastic. In addition to automobiles, another components-intensive, assembly-based industry that successfully emerged in Japan in the 1970s was consumer electronics (Dunning, 1996 #5). Both automobiles and consumer electronics came to capitalise very adroitly on Japans dual industrial structure in which numerous small and medium-sized enterprise coexisted alongside a limited number of large-scale firms; the former specialised at the relatively labour-intensive end, while the latter operated at the relatively capital-intensive, scale-based end of vertically integrated manufacturing (Dunning, 2008 #3). Furthermore, it was also in Japans auto industry (at Toyota Motor Co., to be exact) that a new manufacturing paradigm, lean or flexible production, originated as a superior alternative to Fordist mass production (Womack, Jones and Roos, 1990). This technological progress came to be reflected in rising technology exports in the transport equipment (mostly, automobile) industry. But the very success of building up the efficient, large-scale (hence exploitative of scale/scope economies) hierarchies of assembly operations in highly differentiated automobiles and electronics goods, along with increased RD and technological accumulation (which is reflected in increasing technology exports), resulted in Japans export drive and expanding trade surplus. These situations in turn quickly led to trade issues and the sharp appreciation of the yen (Dunning, 2008 #3). To circumvent protectionism, Japanese producers of automobiles and electronics goods began to replace their exports with local assembly operations in the Western markets, mainly in North America and Europe. Meanwhile, they also started to produce fairly standardised (ie. Relatively low value added) parts and components, or those that can be cost-effectively produced, locally, both in low-wage developing countries, especially in Asia, and in high-wage Western countries- in the latter, with the installation of labour-cost-reducing and labour-quality-augmenting automation equipment mostly shipped from Japan. Therefore, a network of Japanese overseas ventures began to straddle the advanced host countries and the developing host countries at the same time (Dunning, 2008 #3). Recently, these assembly-based FDIs are going beyond the trade-conflict-skirting phase to reach a new phase of rationalised cross-border production and marketing. More and more components are produced at supplied home to the overseas manufacturing outposts. Also, low-end products (models) are assigned to production and marketing in the developing host countries, especially in Asia; some are imported back into Japan. Thus, we can discern a more refined or more sharply delineated and specialised form of trade within an industry (i.e intra industry) or more appropriately within a firm (i.e intra- firm trade) and within a production process (i.e inter-process trade), a new form of trade made possible by rationalisation-seeking type of FDI (Dunning, 1996 #5). 2.2 Toyota (Please refer to appendix 1 2 in reading this section) The Japanese market is the most consolidated of all triad markets. Toyota, is a transnational Japanese international car manufacturer where headquartered in Aichi, Japan (Dunning, 2008 #3). According to appendix 1, in 2011, Toyota was the fifth biggest transnational companies with foreign sale as 60.8 percent of total. Also, it has 38% of its 326,000 workers abroad (Economist, 2012 #7). In 2009, Toyota alone has 36.88 percent of the passenger car market, 18.29 percent of the truck market and 79.72 percent of the bus market (M.Rugman, 2012 #6). Excluding Japan, Toyota is the market leader in two of the six largest countries in Asia Pacific which are Malaysia and Thailand (M.Rugman, 2012 #6). Furthermore, in 2009, two regional markets accounted for 78 percent of Toyotas revenue Asia (with Japan at 48.3 percent of revenues) and North America (at 29.70 percent of revenues); Europe was only at 14.1 percent of revenues and rest of the world 7.9 percent, and hence, it is a bi-region-focused company. According to appendix 2, In term of units sold, the geographic distribution is similar where Asia and Oceania account for 14 percent, North America 32 percent and Europe 14 percent. Therefore, in terms of revenue and units sold, Toyota is a bi-regional company (Dunning, 1996 #5) . Over 10 years, Toyotas intra-regional percentage of sales has decreased from 57.1 percent to 46.2 percent. One major reason for this is the Japanese market itself, where sales decreased for 48.4 percent of total revenues in 1993 to 38.3 percent in 2002. As comparison, North American, European, and non-triad sales have steadily increased in importance. Toyota manufactures locally over two thirds of the car sells in United States. Local responsiveness is important for Toyota. Toyota introduced its luxury models to accommodate the wealthier and aging North American baby boomers in the 1990s. Today, the company is introducing cars to target the young American customer, the demographic echo of the baby boomers. Since 60 percent of US car buyers remain loyal to the brand of first car, it is thus imperative to service this young market (M.Rugman, 2012 #6). Furthermore, american consumers, have been responsive to the companys reputation for lower price and quality at which Toyotas cars are sold (M.Rugman, 2012 #6). Also, the resale value is also higher for Toyota cars. One major advantage for Toyota is that is has some of the best manufacturing facilities in the world, and it combined this with excellent relationships with its suppliers. Until recently, Toyota was one of the most efficient companies at outsourcing production to suppliers with whom it enjoys amicable long-term, sometimes keiretsu-style, relationship (Dunning, 2008 #3). If the auto industry is to become more like the electronics industry, vehicle brand owner (VBOs), such as GM, and VW, will be the equivalent of original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in the electronics industry, such as Nokia, and will concentrate on designing, engineering, and marketing vehicles to be sold under their brand while others take care of manufacturing (Dunning, 1996 #5). Toyota is probably fu rther along this outsourcing route than other triad auto makers. Overall, although Toyota has much intra-regional trade and FDI, this does not mean that trade or FDI between them has declined (M.Rugman, 2012 #6). As discussed, all of them have invested large amounts of money in each other. For example, in 2008, the EU country has $1,622.911 billion of FDI in the United States and $86.915 billion in Japan. The United States imports $377 billion from the EU and $143.4 billion from Japan. So they are closely linked in terms of both trade and FDI (M.Rugman, 2012 #6). 3. Conclusions Overall, this report has reviewed the theoretical literature on foreign direct investment and Honda automotive in the FDI international markets. Since Hymer, there have been attempts to address a number of issues, such as why FDI occurs and where it locates. This report has also take on board developments in Dunnings eclectic paradigm of FDI, which not only encompasses ownership and internalisation advantages of multinational enterprise, but the role that location plays in a firms decision to invest abroad. Since the time of the eclectic paradigm, other theories have emerged that have stressed the importance of the role of strategy in FDI in the face of globalisation and a corresponding growth in competition between firms. In this, the role of the traditional barriers to entry across countries, such as the differences in the legal, economic environments and linguistic, have become less important, and FDI is now be viewed as competition between a few firms on an international stage (D unning, 1996 #5). Dunnings IDP paradigm provides a thought-provoking framework to examine the Japanese industry experience, because the case of Japan seems so deviant from the norm set forth in the macro-IDP pattern. The Asian NIEs and the new NIEs (ASEAN-4) and now new new NIEs (China, Vietnam and India) have moulded their developmental strategies along the line of MNE- facilitated development in order to swing up. Indeed, Japan automotive seems to have been a role model for other East and South East Asian countries to match in their drive to economic modernisation. In addition, to the high level of international business conducted across the triad, companies in the triad are constantly looking for new ideas from other regions that will make them more competitive. In the United States, for example, the head of the Federal Reserve System has expressed the belief that US antitrust practices are out of date and that competitors should be allowed to acquire and merge with each other in order to protect themselves from world competition (Dunning, 2008 #3). This idea has long been popular in Japan where Keiretsus, or business groups, which consist of a host of companies that are linked together through ownership and/or joint ventures, dominate the local environment and are able to use their combined connections and wealth to dominate world markets. (2000 words) Table 1 The Three Conditions of the Eclectic Theory Ownership-specific advantages (internal to enterprises of one nationality) Size of firm Technology and trade marks Management and organisational systems Access to spare capacity Economies of joint supply Greater access to markets and knowledge International opportunities such as diversifying risk Location-specific advantage (determining the location of production) Distribution of inputs and markets Cost of labour, transport and materials costs between countries Government intervention and policies Commercial and legal infrastructure Language, culture and customs (ie psychic distance) Internalisation-specific advantages (overcoming market imperfections) Reduction in search, negotiation and monitoring costs Avoidance of property right enforcement costs Engage in price discrimination Protection of product Avoidance of tariffs Source: Dunning (1981) Table 2 Characteristics of Countries and OLI-specific Advantages Owbnership-specific advantages Country characteristics Size of firm Large markets Liberal attitudes to mergers Technology and trade marks Government support of innovation Skilled workforce Management and organisational systems Supply of trained managers. Educational facilities Product differentiation High income countries Levels of advertising and marketing Location-specific advantages Country characteristics Costs of labour and materials Developed or developing country Transport costs between countries Distance between countries Government intervention and policies Attitudes of government to FDI Economies of scale Size of markets Psychic distance Similarities of countries languages and cultures. Internalisation-specific advantages Country characteristics Searching negotiating monitoring costs. Greater levels of education and larger markets make knowledge type ownership-specific advantages more likely to occur. Avoid costs of enforcing property rights. Protection of products. Source: Dunning (1981) Appendix 1 C:UsersuserDesktop20120714_woc582_5.png